Platner & Ashby
Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome 1926
  
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1 Original Alphabetical Menu 23
1 A 208 148.9 2:04:05
2 B 50 16.8 14
3 C 164 108.5 1:30:25
4 D 302 88 1:13:20
5 E 18 8 6:40
6 F 104 57.4 47:50
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8 H 116 32.1 26:45
9 I 88 49.9 41:35
10 L 74 16.7 41:40
11 M 81 47.3 39:25
12 N 31 11.4 9:30
13 O 19 11.3 9:25
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8 H 116 32.1 26:45
19 U 6 2.8 2:20
20 V 185 53 44:10
21 X 5 .7 :35
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Menus
Menu 1 8 6:35
Menu 2 14.1 11:45
Total 242,895 972 13:30
Menu-Body 57% 1.5%, 1/1.76, 1/122
Numbered Chapters 1,944
Detailed Chapters 4
Pages per chapter .5, 2.4, :25, 2:00
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2 Wikipedia Functional Menu
1 Entertainment 9
2 Infrastructure 17
3 Monuments 7
4 Economy & Politics 16
5 Temples & Shrines 9
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4 D: Domus.. 302 88 1:13:20
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2 Wikipedia Functional Menu
1 Entertainment 9
1 Baths 23
2 Fields 21
3 Cliffs 1
4 Gardens 67
5 Groves 4
6 Lakes 8
7 Porticoes 56
8 Race Tracks 6
9 Theaters 14
2 Infrastructure 17
1 Aqueducts 15
2 Bridges 21
3 Cemeteries 6
4 Crematories 4
5 Docks 2
6 Fountains/Springs 16
7 Harbours. 7
8 Hospitals. 5
9 Military. 13
10 Mills 2
11 Mint 1
12 Prison. 1
13 Reservoirs. 2
14 Roads. 44
15 Waterways. 6
16 Wearhouses. 30
17 Walls & Gates. 6/38
3 Monuments 7
1 Arches 37
2 Columns. 12
3 Mausoleums. 4
4 Obolisks. 30
5 Statues. 47
6 Tombs 11
7 Towers 2
4 Economy & Politics 16
1 Apartments 3
2 Banks 1
3 Courts 7
4 Districs, Hills & Neighborhoods. 57
5 Executions. 1
6 Government Offices. 7
7 Libraries. 7
8 Markets. 11
9 Meeting Areas, "Basilicas". 12
10 Meeting Areas, "Fora". 29
11 Speaking Platforms
"Rostrum". 7
12 Sheepfolds. 1
13 Slaughterhouses,
Macellum. 3
14 Stairs. 9
15 Trade Schools. 10
16 Wagon Depot. 1
17 Houses
5 Temples & Shrines 9
1 Aventine Hill. 6
2 Caelian Hill. 1
3 Capitoline Hill. 10
4 Campus Martius. 23
5 Esquiline Hill. 3
6 Forum Boarium. 6
7 Forum Holitorium. 5
8 Forum Romanum. 9
9 Imperial fora. 5
10 Palatine Hill. 10
11 Quirinal Hill. 6
12 Tiber Island. 3
13 Circus Maximus 1
14 Transtiberium 1
Menu 2.
1 Entertainment. 9/188
2 Fields. 21
1 AGRIPPAE .4 :20.
2 BOARIUS .1 :05.
3 BRUTTIANUS .1 :05.
4 CAELEMONTANUS .2 :10.
5 CODETANUS .3 :15.
6 COHORTIUM PRAETORIARUM .3 :15.
7 ESQUILINUS .6 :30.
8 FLAMINIUS .3 :15.
9 IOVIS .3 :15.
10 IGNIFER (TARENTUM) .8 :40. 
11 LANATARIUS .2 :10.
12 MARTIUS 4.9 4:05.
13 MARTIALIS .3 :15.
14 MINOR .1 :05. 
15 NERONIS .3 :15.
16 OCTAVIUS 0. 
17 PECUARIUS .3 :15. 
18 SCELERATUS .2 :10. 
19 TIBERINUS .3 :15. 
20 VATICANUS (VATICANUS) 0. 
21 VIMINALIS .3 :15. 
3 Cliffs.
RUPES TARPEIA 0.
4 Gardens. 67
1 Aciliorum 1.2 1.
2 AGRIPPAE .1 :05.
3 Agrippinae .1 :05.
4 ALLI FALETIANI 0.
5 ANNIANI 0.
6 ANTONII 0.
7 ANTONIANI .1 :05.
8 AQUILI REGULI .1 :05.
9 ARONIANI .1 :05.
10 ASIATICI 0.
11 ASINIANI .5 :25.
12 ATTICIANI 0.
13 Caesaris. 1 .3 :15
14 Caesaris. 2 .4 :20
15 CALYCLANI .4 :20.
16 CASSIANI .1 :05.
17 CILONIAE FABIAE .2 :10.
18 CLODIAE .1 :05. 
19 COMMODIANI .1 :05.
20 COPONIANI .2 :10. 
21 COTTAE .1 :05.
22 CRASSIPEDIS .2 :10.
23 CUSINII .1 :05.
24 DAMASIPPI .1 :05.
25 DOLABELLAE .1 :05.
26 Domitiae .3 :15.
27 DOMITIAE CALVILLAE .2 :10. 
28 DOMITIORUM 0.
29 DRUSI .1 :05.
30 EPAPHRODITIANI .4 :20. 
31 FRONTONIS .1 :05.
32 GALBAE .1 :05.
33 GETAE .3 :15.
34 Lamiani .8 :40.
35 Lamiani 2 .1 :05.
36 LARGIANI .1 :05.
37 Liciniani .4 :20.
38 Lolliani .3 :15.
39 Lucullus .7 :35.
40 Maecenas (Maecenatis) 1.1 :55.
41 MAIANI 0.
42 MARSIANI .2 :10.
43 MESSALAE CORVINI .1 :05.
44 NERONIS 0.
45 OTHONIS .1 :05.
46 PALLANTIANI .5 :25.
47 C. PASSIENI CRISPI .2 :10.
48 PEDUCEIANI .2 :10.
49 Pompeiani .4 :20.
50 POMPONII SECUNDI .1 :05. 
51 REGULI .2 :10. 
52 Sallust 1.6 1:20.
53 SCAPULANI .1 :05.
54 SCATONIANI .2 :10.
55 SCIPIONIS .1 :05. 
56 SENECAE .1 :05.
57 SERVILIANI .1 :05.
58 SILIANI .1 :05.
59 SPEI VETERIS .2 :10.
60 Tauriani .2 :10.
61 TERENTII .1 :05. 
62 THRASEAE PAETI 0.
63 TORQUATIANI .7 :35. 
64 TREBONII .1 :05.
65 VARIANI .3 :15.
66 VETTIANI 0.
67 VOLUSIANI .6 :30.
5 Groves. 3
1 NAEVIA NEMORA .2 :10.
2 NEMUS CAESARUM 0.
3 TIFATA CURIA .2 :10.
4 TIFATA MANCINA .1 :05.
6 Lakes. 8
1 Naumachia Augusti 1 :50.
2 Naumachia Vaticani .6 :30.
3 NAUMACHIA CALIGULAE 0.
4 NAUMACHIA CAESARIS .3 :15.
5 NAUMACHIA DOMITIANI .3 :15.
6 NAUMACHIA PHILIPPI .3 :15.
7 STAGNUM AGRIPPAE. (CAPRAE PALUS.) .4 :20
8 STAGNUM NERONIS .2 :10.
7 Porticoes. 56
1 ABSIDATA .3 :15.
2 Aemilia .7 :35.
3 AGRIPPIANA 0.
4 APOLLINIS 0.
5 ARGONAUTARUM .5 :25.
6 IN AVENTINO 0.
7 BONI EVENTUS .4 :20.
8 IN CAPITOLIO 0.
9 CATULI .2 :10.
10 CLAUDIA 0.
11 IN CLIVO CAPITOLINO 0.
12 CONSTANTINI .1 :05. 
13 CORINTHIA 0.
14 CREP(EREIA?) 0.
15 CURVAE 0.
16 DECII .2 :10.
17 Deorum Consentium .9 :45.
18 DIVORUM 0.
19 EUROPAE .3 :15.
20 FABARIA .2 :10.
21 GAI ET LUCI 0.
22 GALLIENI .2 :10.
23 GORDIANI .3 :15.
24 GYPSIANI 0.
25 HERCULEA 0.
26 ILICII .2 :10.
27 IOVIA 0.
28 IULIA 0.
29 INTER LIGNARIOS .2 :10.
30 Livia .8 :40.
31  MARGARITARIA .8 :40. 
32 MAXIMAE .4 :20.
33 MELEAGRI .2 :10.
34 METELLI .3 :15. 
35 MILIARENSIS 0.
36 MILIARIA .3 :15.
37 MINUCIA 2.6 2:10.
38 AD NATIONES .4 :20.
39 POST NAVALIA .2 :10. 
40 Octavia .4 :20.
41 Octaviae 1.5 1:15.
42 PALLANTIANA .2 :10.
43 PALMATA .1 :05.
44 PHILIPPI .3 :15.
45 POLLAE 0.
46 EXTRA PORTAM FONTINALEM 0.
47 EXTRA PORTAM TRIGEMINAM 0.
48 PURPURETICA 0.
49 QUIRINI .2 :10.
50 SAEPTORUM 0.
51 POMPEI 1 :50.
52 SEVERI .2 :10. 
53 POST SPEI .4 :20.
54 THERMARUM TRAIANARUM .3 :15.
55 TRI(UMPHI) .7 :35.
56 Vipsania 1 :50.
 
2 Infrastructure. 17/211
4 Crematories. 2
1 USTRINUM ANTONINORUM .9 :45.
2 USTRINUM DOMUS AUGUSTAE .2 :10.
5 Docks. 2
1 NAVALIA 2.2 1:50.
2 NAVALE INFERIUS 0.
7 Harbours. 7
1 PORTUS CORNELI(I) .2 :10.
2 PORTUS LICINI(I) .3 :15.
3 PORTUS NEAPOLITANUS .1 :05.
4 PORTUS PARRAE .1 :05.
5 PORTUS TIBERINUS 0.
6 PORTUS VINARIUS .1 :05.
7 PORTUS XYSTI .1 :05.
8 Hospitals. 5
1 XENODOCHIUM ANICIORUM .2 :10.
2 XENODOCHIUM BELISARII. 0
3 XENODOCHIUM S. GREGORII IUXTA GRADUS S. PETRI 0 d.
4  XENODOCHIUM VALERIORUM 0.
5 XENODOCHIUM DE VIA NOVA .3 :15.
1 Villa Mills .4 :20.
2 MOLINAE .3 :15.
11 Mint. 1
MONETA .4 :20. 
12 Prison. 1
Carcer 2.1 1:45.
13 Reservoirs. 2
1 PISCINA AQUAE ALEXANDRINAE .2 :10.
2 PISCINA AQUAE VIRGINIS .1 :05.
Roads. 44
1 Alta Semita .6 :30.
2 Via Appia 1 :50.
3 Via Ardeatina 1.1 :55.
4 Argiletum .5 :25.
5 Clivus Argentarius .2 :10.
6 Via Asinaria .4 :20.
7 Via Aurelia .6 :30.
8 CLIVUS BASSILLI .2 :10.
9 Clivus Capitolinus 2 1:40.
10 CLIVUS CAPSARIUS .3 :15.
11 Via Cornelia .6 :30.
12 CLIVUS COSCONIUS .1 :05.
13 CLIVUS DELPHINI .2 :10.
14 Via Flaminia 1.4 1:10.
15 Vicus Jugarius 1.8 1:30.
16 Via Lata .3 :15.
17 Via Latina 1.2 1.
18 Vicus Longus .6 :30.
19 CLIVUS MAMURI .3.
20 CLIVUS MARTIS .4 :20.
20.5 NOVA VIA 1.6 1:20.
21 CLIVUS ORBIUS (URBIUS) .5 :25.
22 Clivus Palatinus .5 :25.
23 CLIVUS PATRICI 0.
24 Vicus Patricius 0.
25 CLIVUS PUBLICIUS .4 :20.
26 CLIVUS PULLIUS .4 :20.
27 CLIVUS RUTARIUS .2 :10.
28 CLIVUS SACER .3 :15.
29 CLIVUS SALUTIS .4 :20.
30 CLIVUS TRIARIUS .1 :05.
31 CLIVUS VICTORIAE .6 :30.
32 CLIVIUS URBIUS 0.
33 Clivus Scauri .7 :35.
34 Clivus Suburanus .3 :15.
34.5 MALUM PUNICUM, AD .2 :10.
35 Via Laurentina 0.
36 0 0
37 Via Ostiensis .8 :40.
38 Via Portuensis .8 :40.
39 Via Sacra 1.1.
40 Via Salaria 1.1 :55.
41 Via Tiburtina .5 :25.
42 PLATEA TRAIANI .1 :05.
43 Vicus Tuscus .6 :30.
44 CAPUT GORGONIS .2 :10.
1 HORREA AGRIPPIANA .7 :35.
2 HORREA AGRIPPINIANA .2 :10. 
3 HORREA ANICIANA .2 :10.
4 HORREA CAESARIS .1 :05. 
5 HORREA CANDELARIA .1 :05. 
6 HORREA CHARTARIA .1 :05.
7 HORREA FAENIANA .1 :05.
8 HORREA GALBAE 1.6 1:20. 
9 HORREA GERMANICIANA 0.
10 HORREA LEONIANA .1 :05.
11 HORREA LOLLIANA .1 :05.
12 HORREA NERVAE .2 :10.
13 HORREA PEDUCEIANA .2 :10. 
14 HORREA PETRONIANA .2 :10.
15 HORREA PIPERATARIA .2 :10.
16 HORREA POSTUMIANA .2 :10.
17 HORREA SEIANA .2 :10. 
18 HORREA SEMPRONIA .2 :10. 
19 HORREA SEVERIANA .2 :10.
20 HORREA SULPICIA 0.
21 HORREA Q. TINEI SACERDOTIS .1 :05.
22 HORREA UMMID(IANA) .2 :10. 
23 HORREA VESPASIANI .1 :05. 
24 HORREA VOLUSIANA .1 :05.
25 CATABULUM .2 :10.
26 CELLA NIGRINIANA .3 :15.
27 CELLA SOLIARIS 0.
28 CELLAE VINARIAE NOVA ET ARRUNTIANA .4 :20.
29 CICONIAE NIXAE .4 :20.
30 SUMMUM CHORAGIUM .5 :25.
17 Walls & Gates. 6/38
1 Wall of Romulus. 1
 Porta Romanula .2 0.
2 Servian Wall Gates. 16
1 Caelimontana .4 :20.
2 Capena .8 :40.
3 Carmentalis .4 :20.
4 Collina .4 :20.
5 Esquilina .4 :20.
6 Flumentana .3 :15.
7 Fontinalis .7 :35.
8 Lavernalis .4 :20.
9 Naevia .3 :15.
10 Querquetulana .3 :15.
11 Quirinalis .3 :15.
12 Raudusculana .8 :40.
13 Salutaris .3 :15.
14 Sanqualis .2 :10.
15 Trigemina .8 :40.
16 Viminalis .3 :15.
3 Aurelian Wall Gates. 21
1 Appia 1.5 1:15.
2 Ardeatina .5 :25.
3 Asinaria .8 :40.
4 Aurelia Pancraziana .4 :20.
5 Aurelia-Sancti Petri .7 :35.
6 Clausa 1.1 :55.
7 Flaminia .8 :40.
8 Latina .6 :30.
9 Praenestina 1.5 1:15.
10 Metronia, (Metrovia) .7 :35.
11 Nomentana .6 :30.
12 Ostiensis 1.1 :55.
13 Pinciana .5 :25.
14 Praetoriana .1 :05.
15 Principalis Dextera .5 :25.
16 Porta Decumana .1 :05.
17 Porta Principalis Sinistra .1 :05.
18 Portuensis .5 :25.
19 Salaria .8 :40.
20 Septimiana .8 :40.
21 Tiburtina 1 :50.
4 MURUS MUSTELLINUS .2 :10.
5 MURUS RUPTUS 0.
6 MURUS TERREUS .8 :40.
     
3 Monuments. 7/143
1 Arches. 37
1 Argentariorum 0.
2 Fornix Augusti .4 :20.
3 Arcadius, Honorius & Theodosius .4 :20.
4 Augustus 2.1 1:45.
5 FORNIX CALPURNIUS .1 :05.
6 Claudius (British victory) .6 :30.
7 Claudius .3 :15.
8 Constantine 3.5 2:55.
9 Dolabella & Silanus .5 :25.
10 Drusus .3 :15.
11 Drusus & Germanicus .1 :05.
12 FORNIX FABIANUS 1 :50.
12.5 Gallienus .5 :25.
13 Gratian, Valentinian & Theodosius .3 :15.
14 Janus Quadrifons (DIVI CONSTANTINI). 0
15 Lentulus & Crispinus .4 :20.
16 Nero 1.6 1:20.
17 Novus .5 :25.
18 Octavius .4 :20.
19 Pietas, (Pietatis) .8 :40.
20 FORNIX SCIPIONIS .2 :10. 
21 Septimius Severus 1.9 1:35.
22 Stillans .5 :25.
23 FORNIX STERTINII .2 :10.
24 FORNICES STERTINII .2 :10.
25 Tiberius .5 :25.
26 TIBURII or DIBURI .1 :05.
26.5 TIGILLUM SORORIUM .7 :35.
27 Titus (Circus Maximus) .4 :20.
28 Titus (Roman Forum) 2.1 1:45.
29 DE TOSECTIS .1 :05.
30 Trajan. (Trajan's Forum) 0.
31 Trajan. Region .3 :15.
32 AD TRES FASCICLAS, TRIPOLIS or TROFOLI 0.
33 VALENTINIANI 0.
34 DIVI VERI .3 :15.
35 VESPASIANI ET TITI 0.
7 Towers. 2
1 TURRIS MAECENATIANA 0 0.
2 TURRIS MAMILIA 0 0.
4 Obolisks. 30
1 Egyptian. 25
1 ANTINOI 9 .9 :45.
2 AUGUSTI, GNOMON 1 :50.
3 AUGUSTI IN CIRCO MAXIMO .6 :30.
4 CAPITOLINUS .4 :20.
5 CONSTANTII .7 :35.
6 Dogali, 6.34 BC .3 :15.
7 Flaminio, 24 BC .3 :15.
8 HORTORUM SALLUSTIANORUM 13 1.6 1:20.
9 INSULANUS (Tiber Island) 2.7.
10 ISEI CAMPENSIS 1 DOMITIANI .5 :25.
11 ISEI CAMPENSIS 2 2.7 2:15.
12 Arra ISEI CAMPENSIS 3 0.
13 ISEI CAMPENSIS 4 0.
14 ISEI CAMPENSIS 5 0.
15 ISEI CAMPENSIS 6 0.
16 ISEI CAMPENSIS 7 0.
17 ISEI CAMPENSIS 8 0.
18 ISEI CAMPENSIS 9 0.
19 Lateranense, 32. Meters 357 1.9 1:35.
20 Macuteo, 6.34 BC .3 :15.
21 Matteiano, 2.68 BC .4 :20.
22 MAUSOLEI AUGUSTI 14 .5 :25.
23 Minerveo, 5.47 285 .3 :15.
24 Solare, 21.79 BC .3 :15.
25 Vaticano, 25.5 40 .6 :30.
2 Roman. 5
9 Agonalis, 16.53 90 0 0.
10 Quirinale, 14.63 28 BC 0 0.
11 Esquiline, 28 BC 0 0.
12 Sallustiano, 273 0 0.
13 Pinciano, 125 0 0.
5 Statues. 47
1 Colossus of Constantine 3 2:30.
2 Colossus of Nero. 1.4 1:10
3 Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius 2.8 2:20.
4 APOLLO CAELISPEX .2 :10.
5 APOLLO SANDALIARIUS .1 :05.
6 QUADRIGAE PISONIS .3 :15.
7 REG(IO) MAR(TIS) .2 :10.
8 SEMO SANCUS .4 :20.
9 STATUA ANTONII MUSAE .2 :10.
10 STATUA ATTI NAVI .5 :25.
11 STATUA L. BRUTI .1 :05.
12 STATUA CINCI 0.
13 STATUA CLOELIAE .7 :35.
14 STATUA HERMODORI .1 :05.
15 STATUA HORATII COCLITIS .1 :05.
16 STATUA (LORICATA) DIVI IULII .4 :20.
17 STATUA MAMURI 0.
18 STATUA Q. MARCI REGIS 0.
19 STATUA Q. MARCI TREMULI 0.
20 STATUA MARSYAE 1 :50.
21 STATUA MINUCII 0.
22 STATUA PLANCI .1 :05.
23 STATUA POMPEII .1 :05.
24 STATUAE REGUM ROMANORUM .3 :15.
25 STATUA ROMULI .3 :15.
26 STATUA SALONINI GALLIENI .3 :15.
27 STATUA SULLAE .2 :10.
28 STATUA TARACIAE GAIAE 0.
29 STATUA TIBERIS .2 :10.
30 STATUA VALERI CORVINI .1 :05.
31 STATUA VALERIANA .2 :10.
32 TRIA FATA .4 :20.
33 TROPAEA GERMANICI .1 :05.
34 TROPAEA MARII .8 :40.
35 TROPAEA NERONIS .1 :05.
36 TUTILINAE LOCA .2 :10.
37 UMBILICUS ROMAE .4 :20.
38 STATUA VORTUMNI 0.
39 MONUMENTUM ARGENTARIORUM 0.
40 MONUMENTUM ARRUNTIORUM 0. 
41 MONUMENTUM AURELIORUM .6 :30. 
42 MONUMENTUM CINCIORUM 0.
43 MONUMENTUM DOMITIORUM 0.
44 MONUMENTUM IULIORUM 0.
45 MONUMENTA MARII 0.
46 MONUMENTA MARIANA 0.
47 MONUMENTUM STATILIORUM 0.
4 Economy & Politics. 16/410
1 DIAETAE MAMMAEAE .2 :10.
2 Alloggiamenti de Pellegrini 0.
3 C. NUMITORII AEDIFICIA .1 :05.
2 Banks. 1
PUTEAL LIBONIS PUTEAL SCRIBONIANUM .6 :30.
1 ACCULEIA .3 :15.
2 ATHLETARUM .4 :20.
3 CALABRA .6 :30.
4 HOSTILIA 1.2 1.
5 Iulia (Diocletian) 3.9 3:15. 
6 NOVAE .3 :15.
7 VETERES .4 :20.
4 Districs, Hills & Neighborhoods. 57
1 Regions of Rome 14
1 Porta Capena .8 :40.
2 Caelimontium .5 :25.
VALLIS EGERAIA 0.
3 Isis et Serapis 0.
MONETARII .2 :10.
4 Templum Pacis.
PAGUS SUCUSANUS 0 0.
5 Esquiliae. 7
1 PAGUS MONTANUS 0.
2 MACELLENSES .1 :05.
3 PUTICULI .9 :45.
4 SECUNDENSES .3 :15.
5 Oppian Hill 0.
6 AD TAURUM .2 :10.
7 TELLURENSES .1 :05.
6 Alta Semita 0. 3
1 Quirinal Hill 0.
CATIALIS COLLIS .1 :05.
2 QUIRINENSES .3 :15.
3 MUCIALIS COLLIS 0.
7 Via Lata .3 :15.
8 Forum Romanum 11.6 0.
9 Circus Flaminius 0. 4
1 PRATA FLAMINIA .3 :15.
2 PRATA MUCIA .2 :10.
3 TARENTUM .8 :40.
4 CAPRALIA .1 :05.
5 Sacravienses 5.7 4:45.
10 Palatium 0. 3
1 PRATA VACCI 0.
2 VELABRUM 1.3 1:05.
3 VELIA .8 :40.
11 Circus Maximus 0. 3
1 PORTUNIUM 1.1 :55.
2 AD TO(N)SORES .2 :10.
3 TRAIANENSES .2 :10.
12 Piscina Publica.
VENERENSES 0.
13 Aventinus. 4 0 0
1  PAGUS AVENTINENSIS .3 :15.
2 PLATANONIS 9.7 8:05.
3 TESTACEUS MONS .7 :35.
4 MURCUS MONS 0.
14 Transtiberim. 6 0
1 PAGUS IANICULENSIS .2 :10.
2 PRATA NERONIS 0.
3 PRATA QUINCTIA .3 :15.
4 SEPTIMIANUM .3 :15.
5 VALLIS VATICANA .2 :10.
6 VATICANUS AGER 2.3 1:55.
2 Neighborhoods in Unknown Areas. 5 0 0
1 A FURCA .1 :05.
2 REMORIA .6 :30.
3 NOENSES DE ARA MATIDIAE .1 :05.
4 AD NUCEM .2 :10.
5 TASCOGENSES .1 :05.
3 Regiones Quattuor: Collina, Esquilina, Palatina, Suburana 1.5 1:15.
4 Pomerium 5.9 4:55.
5 Executions. 1
PUTICULI .9 :45.
6 Government Offices. 7 0 0
1 SECRETARIUM CIRCI for Praefectus urbi .1 :05.
2 SECRETARIUM SENATUS for Senators .1 :05.
3 SECRETARIUM TELLURENSE for Praefectus urbi 0.
4 STATIO ANNONAE for Praefectus Annonae .6 :30.
5 STATIO AQUARUM for Aqueducts 0.
6 STATIONES MUNICIPIORUM for foreigners .3 :15.
7 STATIONES VIGILUM for police & firemen 0.
7 Libraries. 7
1 ASINII POLLIONIS .3 :15.
2 Apollinis 4.5 3:45.
3 CHALCIDICUM .3 :15.
4 Octavia in Porticus Octaviae 1.5 1:15.
5 Pacis 2.5 2:05.
6 TEMPLI D. AUGUSTI .5 :25.
7 Ulpia 2.5 2:05.
11 Speaking Platforms
"Rostrum". 7
1 Rostra 2.7 2:15.
2 AEDES DIVI IULI 0.
3 AUGUSTI 5.4 4:30.
4 CAESARIS 0.
5 DIVI IULI 0.
6 PALIKANI 0.
7 VETERA 0.
12 Sheepfolds. 1
OVILE (Originally) .6 :30.
16 Wagon Depot. 1
AREA CARRUCES .3 :15.
13 Slaughterhouses,
Macellum. 3
1 MACELLUM .8 :40.
2 Macellum Liviae .8 :40.
3 MACELLUM MAGNUM 1 :50.
14 Stairs. 9
1 ANULARIAE .3 :15.
2 CACI .8 :40.
3 CANINIAE 0.
4 CASSII .2 :10.
5 DEUM PENATIUM 0.
6 GEMONIAE .6 :30.
7 MEDIANA .2 :10.
8 TARQUITIAE .1 :05.
9 CENTUM GRADUS .1 :05.
15 Trade Schools. 10
1 Schola CALCARIENSIUM for lime burners .2 :10.
2 Schola CARRUCARIORUM for Carraige Drivers 0.
3 Schola FABRUM SOLIARIUM BAXIARIUM for shoemakers .1 :05.
4 Schola FORI TRAIANI for editors & authors .2 :10.
5 Schola KALATORUM PONTIFICUM for assistent freedmen for pontifices & flamines .5 :25.
6 Schola PORTICUS OCTAVIAE for children? 0
7 Schola QUAESTORUM ET CAPLATORUM for olive oil .5 :25.
8 Schola QUINDECIMVIRUM SACRIS FACIUNDIS for Children? .3 :15
9 Schola SODALIUM SERRENSIUM for Children? .2 :10
10 Schola XANTHI for Secretaries, Announcers & Copiersfor Curule Aediles 1 :50.
16 Houses. 244
2 Region 2 8
1 FAUSTA .1 :05.
2 LATERANI .7 :35.
3 L. LUSIUS PETELLINUS .2 :10.
4 PLAUTIUS LATERANUS 0.
5 Julius Philippus. Fl. 244-9 .1 :05.
6 L. PISO .3 :15.
7 SILVERIUS .1 :05.
8 T. SEXTIUS AFRICANUS .3 :15.
4 Region 4 11
1 ANCUS MARTIUS .2 :10.
2 L. BELLIENUS .1 :05.
3 CASSIUS ARGILLUS .3 :15.
4 ARPIUS CLAUDIUS .1 :05.
5 C. LICINIUS CALVIUS .2 :10.
6 C. MARIUS .1 :05.
7 PALMATA .2 :10.
8 C. SALLUSTIUS CRISPUS 0.
9 P. SCIPIO AFRICANUS .2 :10.
10 TULLUS HOSTILIUS .1 :05.
11 VEDIUS POLLIO .2 :10.
5 Region 5 6
1 AUFIDIA CORNELIA VALENTILLA .2 :10.
2 CARMINIA LIVIANA DIOTIMA .3 :15.
3 L. FABIUS GALLUS .3 :15.
4 LAMIAE 0.
5 Q. MUNATIUS CELSUS .2 :10.
6 VETTIUS AGORIUS PRAETEXTATUS ET FABIA PAULINA .3 :15.
7 Region 7 7
1 AMETHYSTI DRUSI CAESAR(IS) .1 :05.
2 CAELIUS SATURNINUS .2 :10.
3 L. FABIUS CILO .2 :10.
4 CORNIFICIA .3 0.
5 LUCINA .2 :10.
6 OCTAVIUS .1 :05.
7 T. SEXTIUS AFRICANUS .3 :15.
8 Region 8 0
9 Region 9 14
1 ANICII 2 .2 :10.
2 CAECILIUS CAPITO .1 :05.
3 APPIUS CLAUDIUS PULCIIER .1 :05.
4 DAPINIS .2 :10.
5 DOMITIANA .2 :10.
6 L. HERMONIUS IUSTUS 0.
7 IULIUS MARTIALIS .1 :05.
8 P. MARTIUS PIIILIPPUS .1 :05.
9 M. AEMILIUS SAURUS .5 :25.
10 SCIPIO NASICA .1 :05.
11 L. SEMPRONIUS RUFUS .1 :05.
12 TETTIUS DAMIO .1 :05.
13 TURCII .2 :10.
14 DUOS AMANTES .3 :15.
10 Region 0
11 Region 0
12 Region 0
13 Region 0
14 Region 0
 
16 Caelian 19
1 ANICII 1 0.
2 ANNIUS VERUS .2 :10.
3 CLAUDIUS CENTUMAIUS .2 :10.
4 DIADUMENUS AUG. L. LIBELLIS .2 :10.
5 ELPIDIUS. 402 A.D .2 :10.
6 C. FABRICIUS 0.
7 GREGORIUS MAGNUS .5 :25.
8 IOHANNES ET PAULUS .8 :40.
9 MAMURRA .1 :05.
10 L. MARIUS MAXIMUS PERPETUUS AURELIANUS .2 :10.
11 M. OPELLIIUS MACRINUS .2 :10.
12 L. ROSCIUS AELIANUS PACULUS .1 :05.
13 C. STERTINIUS XENOPHON .1 :05.
14 Q. AURELIUS SYMMACHUS .2 :10.
15 TETRICUS .3 :15.
16 L. VAGELLIUS .2 :10.
17 VALERII 1.2 1.
18 VECTILIANA .1 :05.
19 VERUS .1 :05.
18 Esquiline 44
1 AELIA ATHENAIS .2 :10.
2 AELII .2 :10.
3 P. AELIUS ROMULUS AUGG. LIB 0.
4 L. AEMILIUS IUNCUS .2 :10.
5 ALBINOVANUS PEDO 0.
6 A. ANNIUS PLOCAMUS .3 :15.
7 M. ANTONIUS. (Carinae) 0.
8 ANTONIUS GNIPHO. (Suburra in Carinae) .1 :05
9 ARRUNTIUS STELLA .1 :05.
10 T. AVIDIUS QUIETUS .3 :15.
11 M. AURELIUS SOLANUS .1 :05.
12 BALBINUS. (Carinae) .1 :05
13 BARONIA IUSTA .1 :05.
14 Q. BLAESIUS IUSTUS .2 :10.
15 CAESAR. (Suburra in Carinae) .1 :05
16 Q. CANUSIUS PRAENESTINUS .2 :10.
17 SPURIUS CASSIUS. (Carinae) .2 :10
18 Q. CICERO. (Carinae) .1 :05
19 CLODIUS .1 :05.
20 M. COCCEIUS NERVA .2 :10.
21 CORNELII FRONTO ET QUADRATUS .2 :10.
22 EQUITIUS .1 :05.
23 FABIA PAULINA 0.
24 T. FLAVIUS TIBERIANUS .2 :10.
25 FRONTO 0.
26 LENAEUS. (Carinae) .1 :05
27 M. MANLIUS. (Carinae) .1 :05
28 NERATIUS CEREALIS. Built 358 0.
29 C. PLINIUS SECUNDUS .1 :05.
30 CN. POMPEIUS. (Carinae) .6 :30
31 SEX. PROPERTIUS .1 :05.
32 ROSTRATA. (Carinae) 0.
33 M. SERVILIUS FABIANUS .2 :10.
34 SERVIUS TULLIUS .1 :05.
35 C. SESTIUS. (Suburra) .1 :05.
36 SEXTIA CETHEGILLA .2 :10.
37 0 0 0
38 SEXTIA CETHEGILLA .2 :10.
39 D. SIMONIUS PROCULUS IULIANUS .2 :10.
40 TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS .1 :05.
41 M. TUTICIUS CAPITO 0.
42 PUBLIA VALERIA COMASIA .2 :10.
43 VARENIUS LIBERALIS .1 :05.
44 P. VERGILIUS MARO .1 :05.
19 Oppian Hill 1
PETRONIUS MAXIMUS .2 :10.
20 Palantine (Region 10) 43
1 M. AGRIPPA 0.
2 AUGUSTUS (AUGUSTIANA) .1 :05.
3 L. CAECILIUS METELLUS .1 :05.
4 CAECINA DECIUS .2 :10.
5 Casa Romuli .6 :30.
6 CAECINA LARGUS 0.
7 M. CAELIUS .1 :05.
8 CATILINE .5 :25.
9 Q. LUTATIUS CATULUS .2 :10.
10 CENSORINUS 0.
11 M. TULLIUS CICERO .5 :25.
12 TI. CLAUDIUS NERO 0.
13 COMMODIANA .3 :15.
14 L. CRASSUS .4 :20.
15 M. CRASSUS 0.
16 DION .1 :05.
17 CN. DOMITIUS CALVINUS .1 :05.
18 FLAMINIA .1 :05.
19 M. FULVIUS FLACCUS .1 :05.
20 GAIANA 0.
21 GELOTIANA .2 :10.
22 GERMANICUS .2 :10.
23 HORTENSIUS .2 :10.
24 IULIUS PROCULUS .3 :15.
25 DOMUS LIVIAE 0.
26 M. LIVIUS DRUSUS 0.
27 M. VALERIUS MESSALA CORVINUS .2 :10.
28 0 0 0.
29 M. VALERIUS MESSALA CORVINUS .2 :10.
30 CN. OCTAVIUS .2 :10.
31 PACILIANA .1 :05.
32 PALATINA .1 :05.
33 PUBLICA 0.
33.5 REGIA 3.3 0.
34 REX SACRORUM 0.
35 ROIUS HILARIO .4 :20.
36 Q. SEIUS POSTUMUS .1 :05.
37 SISENNA STATILIUS 0.
38 P. SULLA .1 :05.
39 TIBERIANA 3.1 2:35.
40 TRANSITORIA 2.5 2:05.
41 VITRUVIUS VACCUS .2 :10.
42 Augustus 1 .1 :05.
43 Tiberius 3.1 2:35.
21 Pincian Hill 2
1 PINCIANA .3 :15.
2 POSTUMII .3 :15.
22 Quirinal 39
1 T. AELIUS NAEVIUS ANTONIUS SEVERUS .2 :10.
2 AEMILIA PAULINA ASIATICA .2 :10.
3 ALFENIUS CEIONIUS IULIANUS KAMENIUS .3 :15.
4 AMPELIUS .2 :10.
5 ATTICUS 0.
6 AVIANUS VINDICIANUS .2 :10.
7 BETITIUS PERPETUUS ARZYGIUS .2 :10.
8 APPIUS CLAUDIUS MARTIALIS .2 :10.
9 CLAUDII .3 :15.
10 L. CORNELIUS PUSIO .2 :10.
11 CORNELIA TAURI .2 :10.
12 M. CURIUS DENTATUS .2 :10.
13 T. FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS CLAUDIANUS 0.
14 T. FLAVIUS SABINUS .2 :10.
15 T. FLAVIUS SALINATOR .1 :05.
16 C. FULVIUS PLAUTIANUS .2 :10.
17 G. .. AR.. .. .... C.ERMANIANUS .2 :10.
18 (H)ATERIUS LATRONIANUS .3 :15.
19 T. IULIUS FRUGI .3 :15.
20 IULIUS POMPEIUS RUSONIANUS .2 :10.
21 M. LAELIUS FULVIUS MAXIMUS .2 :10. 227
22 MANCINUS 0.
23 PUBLIA MARCIA SERGIA FUSCA .1 :05.
24 M. VALERIUS MARTIALIS .2 :10.
25 MUCIANUS .1 :05.
26 L. NAEVIUS CLEMENS .3 :15.
27 NARCISSUS .1 :05.
28 NUMA .1 :05.
29 NUMMII .2 :10.
30 POMPONII .4 :20.
31 APP. SILVIUS IUNIUS SILVINUS .2 :10.
32 SPURIUS MAXIMUS .4 :20.
33 TAMPILIANA 0.
34 Q. VALERIUS VEGETUS .2 :10.
35 VESPASIANUS .2 :10.
36 VIRIUS LUPUS IULIANUS .2 :10.
37 L. VOLUMNIUS .1 :05.
38 VULCACIUS RUFINUS .2 :10.
39 DUAS DOMOS .2 :10.
23 Viminal 7
1 C. AQUILIUS GALLUS .1 :05.
2 SEX. ERUCIUS CLARUS .3 :15.
3 C. IULIUS AVITUS .2 :10.
4 CEIONIUS RUFUS VOLUSIANUS LAMPADIUS .1 :05.
5 CN. NUMICIUS PICUS CAESIANUS .1 :05.
6 L. OCTAVIUS FELIX .1 :05.
7 VALERIA EUNOEA .2 :10.
24 Virinal 2
1 FLAVIUS VEDIUS ANTONINUS .1 :05.
2 M. SALLUSTIUS RUFUS TITILIANUS .1 :05.
25 Temples & Shrines. 9/89
2 Caelian Hill. 1
1 Claudius 1.4 1:10.
1 MATER DEUM, AEDES .2 :10.
1 MAGNA MATER (IN VATICANO) 0. 
 
1 A
1 - 1 ACCA LARENTIA, ARA.
Tomb of Acca Larentia in the Velabrum at the beginning of the Nova via, near the porta Romanula, beside which was an altar where sacrifices were offered by the pontifices on 23rd December.
 
1 - 2 ADONAEA.
Name  found on a fragment of the Marble Plan which seems to belong to a large complex of buildings covering an area of about 1by 90 metres. Its location is not certainly known, though some authors place it at the east angle of the Palatine, in the large area known as Vigna Barberini, (see DOMUS AUGUSTIANA). On the other hand, on grounds of material, it appears that the fragment will not fit in at this part of the plan; and, if this is so, its site must be considered quite uncertain.
 
1 - 3 ADONIDIS AULA.
Hall or garden in the Flavian palace in which Domitian is said to have received Apollonius of Tyana, but nothing is known of its character.
 
1 - 4 AEDES TENSARUM.
mentioned only in one inscription, a military diploma; but probably the same building is referred to in another. This was on the Capitol and served to house the chariots, tensae, in which the statues of the gods were carried in processions.
 
1 - 5 AEDICULA CAPRARIA.
Mentioned in the Notitia among the monuments of the southern part of Region VII, but otherwise unknown (HJ 459). It may have stood in or near the VICUS CAPRARIUS.
 
1 - 6 AEMILIANA.
District outside the Servian wall in the southern part of the campus Martius, but whether near the Tiber, or near the via Flaminia just north of the porta Fontinalis, cannot be determined. It was ravaged by a great fire on 21st Oct., 38 A.D. 
 
1 - 7 AEOLIA.
Balnea belonging to a certain Lupus, which are mentioned only by Martial. The name was perhaps derived from a picture of the island of Aeolus on the wall of the baths, or from its draughts, and in the latter case it may be simply a joke.
 
1 - 8 AEQUIMELIUM.
An open space on the lower part of the south-eastern slope of the Capitoline hill, above the vicus Iugarius. According to tradition this was the site of the house of Sp. Maelius that had been levelled with the ground by order of the senate, and the word itself was derived from his name. In Cicero's time it was the market-place for lambs used in household worship.
 
1 - 9 AERARIUM SATURNI. (SATURNUS, AEDES).

The temple erected close to the original ara at the foot of the Capitoline and edge of the forum. It was the oldest temple of which the erection was recorded in the pontifical archives, but there was marked disagreement as to the exact date. One tradition ascribed its dedication to Tullus Hostilius; according to another it was begun by the last Tarquin. Elsewhere, however, its actual dedication is assigned to the magistrates of the first years of the republic, either to Titus Larcius in his dictatorship in 50, who also is said to have commenced building the temple in his second consulship in 498; or to Aulus Sempronius and M. Mamercus, the consuls of 497; or to Postumus Cominius, consul in 501 and 493, by vote of the senate. A different tradition seems to be preserved by Gellius Which Furius is referred to is not known, and this form of the tradition is probably valueless. The dedication of the temple may safely be assigned to the beginning of the republic.

In 174 B.C. a porticus was built along the clivus Capitolinus from the temple to the Capitolium. In 42 B.C. the temple was rebuilt by L. Munatius Plancus. It is mentioned incidentally in A.D., and at some time in the fourth century it was injured by fire and restored by vote of the senate, as recorded in the inscription on the architrave. It is represented on three fragments of the Marble Plan, and is mentioned in Reg.

Throughout the republic this temple contained the state treasury, the aerarium populi Romani or Saturni, in charge of the quaestors, and in it was a pair of scales to signify this function. Under the empire the same arrangement continued, but the aerarium Saturni now contained only that part of the public funds that was under the direction of the senate as distinguished from the fiscus of the emperors, and was administered by praefecti generally instead of quaestors; for the inscriptions relating to the aerarium, see DE i. 300; and for occurrences of aerarium populi romani or Saturni, Thes. ling. It is probable that only the money itself was kept in the temple, and that the offices of the treasury adjoined it, perhaps at the rear in the AREA SATURNI, until the building of the Tabularium in 78 B.C., when some at least of the records were probably transferred thither. Other public documents were affixed to the outer walls of the temple and adjacent columns.

On the gable of the temple were statues of Tritons with horses, and in the cella was a statue of Saturn, filled with oil and bound in wool, which was carried in triumphal processions. The day of dedication was the Saturnalia, 17th December. There are a few blocks of the podium of the original temple still remaining, and a drain below and in front is probably as early, in which case it and some similar drains close by are the earliest examples of the stone arch in Italy. There is no trace of any construction of an intermediate period, and the existing podium belongs to the temple of Plancus. It is constructed of walls of travertine and peperino, with concrete filling, and was covered with marble facing. It is 22.50 metres wide, about 40 long, and its front and east side rise very high above the forum because of the slope of the Capitoline hill. The temple was Ionic, hexastyle prostyle, with two columns on each side, not counting those at the angles. Of the superstructure eight columns of the pronaos remain, six in front and one on each side, together with the entablature, hitherto attributed to the period of the final restoration. It seems more likely that Fiechter is right in attributing the cornice to the Augustan period, on the analogy of several other cornices. The architrave blocks with the palmette frieze belowthem belong to the forum of Trajan,whence theywere removed for the fourth century restoration (ibid. 62-66). The front columns are of grey and those on the sides of red granite, while the entablature is of white marble. The columns are metres in height and 1.43 in diameter at the base; but in some of them the drums that form the shaft have been wrongly placed, so that the shaft does not taper regularly toward the top. The bases also are of three different kinds-Attic, and Corinthian with and without a plinth.

The steps of this temple were of peculiar form, on account of the closeness of the clivus Capitolinus and the sharp angle which it made in front of the temple, the main flight being only about one-third the width of the pronaos. It may be represented in a relief of the time of M. Aurelius and is certainly seen in one of those of the ROSTRA AUGUSTI. Considerably more of the temple was existing when Poggio first visited Rome in 1402 than was left in 1447, as we learn from his De varietate fortunae.
 
1 - 10 AESCULAPIUS, AEDES.
The temple of Aesculapius erected on the island in the Tiber soon after 291 B.C. In consequence of a pestilence in Rome in 293 an embassy was sent to Epidaurus in 292 to bring back the statue of the god Aesculapius. This embassy returned in 29bringing not the statue, but a serpent from Epidaurus that, on reaching Rome, abandoned the ship and swam to the island. According to another tradition the first temple was built extra urbem, the second in insult. The whole island was consecrated to Aesculapius, the temple built, and dedicated on 1st January. It was usually called aedes, but also templum, fanum, and Ἀσκλπιεῖα in Greek. Besides being the centre of the cult and of the sanatorium that developed on the island, this temple, being outside the pomerium, was also used as a place for the reception of foreign ambassadors, as those of Perseus in 170 B.C., and for such meetings as that between the senators and Gulussa. From a reference in Varro and some inscriptions it appears certain that the first temple was rebuilt or restored towards the end of the republic; perhaps when the pons Fabricius was built in 62 B.C. the first temple was decorated with frescoes. It is altogether probable that there was further restoration during the empire, perhaps under Antoninus Pius, but there is no direct evidence therefore.

There are no certain remains of this temple, but it probably occupied the site of the present church of S. Bartolomeo, and some of the columns of the nave probably belonged to the temple or its porticus. A considerable number of inscriptions relating to the temple or to votive offerings in it have been found in the vicinity, and many terracottas, most of which have been dispersed. A signum Aesculapii is mentioned as standing near the temple in the time of Augustus, but such statues of the god were undoubtedly numerous in and around the temple, as well as elsewhere in Rome.

 
1 - 11 AESCULETUM.
A grove of oaks in the campus Martius, in which the assembly met in 287 B.C. to pass the Hortensian laws. If the VICUA AESC(U)LETI took its name from the grove, it must have been a little north of the. modern ponte Garibaldi.
 
1 - 12 AGER L. PETILII.
Property lying sub Ianiculo, but otherwise unknown, where the tomb and books of Numa were said to have been found in 181 B.C. 
 
1 - 13 AGER TURAX. (CAMPUS TIBERINUS).
Another name for the CAMPUS MARTIUS  according to Gellius, who, with Pliny. It has also been explained as that part of the campus Martius that borders the river from the island northward and identified with the CAMPUS MINOR  of Catullus, and the ἄλλο πέδιον of Strabo.
 
1 - 14 AGER VATICANUS. (VATICANUS AGER).
the district on the right bank of the Tiber, between its lower reaches and the more restricted Veientine territory. Its fertility is spoken of slightingly by Cicero, its wines are frequently derided by Martial, and references to farms or estates are very few. This name continued long in use, for it occurs in Solinus, and in Gellius, who gives two current explanations of the name.

It is probable that the adjective form, Vaticanus, is derived from some substantive, perhaps Vaticanum, or from the early Etruscan name of some settlement, like Vatica or Vaticum, of which all other traces have vanished, except possibly the cognomen Vaticanus which is found twice in the consular Fasti in 455 and 451 B.C.

( VATICANI MONTES

without much doubt a general designation for the hills in the ager Vaticanus, but used, in its only occurrence in litera- ture, of the long ridge from the Janiculum to the modern Monte Mario. Here campus Vaticanus must be used of the whole district between Monte Mario and the Tiber, known in modern times until very recently as the Prati di Castello.

( VATICANUS MONS

in the singular could be used of any one of the montes within the limits of the ager Vaticanus. It occurs ian Horace, where it means the Janiculum, and in Juvenal, where it is more general, as the clay pits are scattered all along this ridge. Festus' Vaticanus collis is to be explained as a mere variant of mons, introduced simply for the sake of the etymology. There is no evidence that Vaticanus mons was a specific name for any one part of the ridge during the classical period. It was in consequence of the gradual restriction of Vaticanum to the area occupied by the CIRCUS GAI ET NERONIS , and the identification of this site as the burial place of S. Peter, that Vaticanus mons became localised in its mediaeval and modern sense. With this new importance in Christian Rome, it took its place among the seven hills (Not. app.).

( VATICANA VALLIS

used once, by Tacitus, for the site of the circus Gai et Neronis, or, if not for its exact site, for the entrance to the depression of the modern Vicolo del Gelsomino, just south-west of the area occupied by the circus proper.

VATICANUM

the substantive, either an original place name or the neuter of the adjective , which was used first to designate, in whole or in part, the level district between the Janiculum-Monte Mario ridge and the Tiber, being more or less equivalent to Cicero's campus Vaticanus, and extending south, probably to the city limits proper. Part at least of this district was regarded as unhealthy; thrice tombs are mentioned that probably stood along the line of the modern Borghi; and it contained a recognised pauper element in its population.

With the building of the circus Gai et Neronis, which was also called circus Vaticanus, increased importance was given to this particular area, and Vaticanum then came to be used of the circus itself, as well as of the whole district.

Another application of the name Vaticanum seems to have been to the shrine of the Magna Mater, whose cult was established close to the circus, if we may judge from an inscription found at Lyon.
 
1 - 15 AGER VERANUS.
The name given in the middle ages to the site occupied by the catacombs of S. Cyriaca and later by the church of S. Lorenzo and the modern cemetery, campo Verano; this district probably took its name from its owner in classical times.
 
1 - 16 AGGER. (MURUS SERII TULLII.)
The wall ascribed by tradition to the sixth of the kings of Rome, perhaps in completion of work already begun by Tarquinius Priscus.

There is considerable discord in the tradition as to which hills were added to the city by which kings; but the statement that Servius Tullius added the Esquiline and the Viminal is consistent with the facts

It is probable that the original settlements on the Palatine, Capitol, Quirinal, etc., had no stone walls, but relied on natural features or sometimes on earthworks, e.g. MURUS TERREUS CARINARUM .

There are remains of a wall in smallish blocks of grey tufa (cappellaccio) at various points on the line of the later enceinte, which are usually assigned to the original wall of Servius Tullius of the sixth century B.C.

The blocks employed are from 0.20 to 0.30 metre high, 0.55 to 0.66 wide and 0.75 to 0.90 long. The most important sections of this wall are to be seen:

(a) at the head of the Via delle Finanze, where the Villa Spithoever once stood. This fine section of it (Ill. 36), some 35 metres long, was discovered in 1907, but a modern street has been run through the middle of it; while other pieces were discovered to the south-west in the garden of the Ministry of Agriculture. Other similar remains appear to have been found near S. Susanna and S. Maria della Vittoria in the seventeenth century, and some of it was still visible in 1867 (Jord. k), though not mentioned in other lists.

(b) in the Piazza dei Cinquecento, opposite the station.

(c) at the south-west angle of the Palatine.

(d) on the north side of the Capitol, under the retaining wall in front of the German Embassy above the Vicolo della Rupe Tarpea; omitted by Jord. i. I. 207, regarding it as a part of the substructions of the area of the temple of Jupiter. The two probably coincided at this point.

(e) in the garden of the Palazzo Colonna at the west end of the Quirinal.

Of these fragments of wall, (a) and (e) undoubtedly belonged to the outer line, while (b) was the retaining wall at the back of the agger, which, no doubt, existed from the first. Of (d) we can say nothing certain, and (c) may belong either to the Palatine or to the Servian enceinte.

To ascribe them to the wall of the city of the Four Regions is impossible, as (a) and (b) would both then be excluded ; and it is very doubtful if this city ever had a wall of its own.

Frank maintains (TF 117, 18) that the battering back of the courses, the use of anathyrosis and the presence of walls of Grotta Oscura tufa of the fourth century B.C. in conjunction with these fragments, are sufficient to make it probable that they should also be assigned to the same period.

It seems, however, more likely that the cappellaccio wall should, as far as our knowledge goes at present, be attributed to the sixth century B.C.

The line of wall (text fig. began at the Tiber, crossed the low ground to the south-west corner of the Capitol, ran north-east along the edge of the cliffs of this hill and the Quirinal, until it almost reached the head of the valley between the Quirinal and the Pincian (Collis Hortorum). Then it ran southwards across the tableland of the Esquiline, crossed the valley between the mons Oppius and the Caelian, followed the cliffs on the south-east and south of this hill, then probably followed the south-west side of the Palatine, and thence ran south of the forum Boarium to the Tiber again.

It is possible that we should attribute to the enceinte of this period an arch with a span of Roman feet (3.30 metres), found in 1885 forty metres south of S. Maria in Cosmedin and constructed of voussoirs of cappellaccio. Its left (south- east) side joined a wall of the same material, which ran into the hill. A paved road passed through it, which was taken to be the CLIVUS PUBLICIUS , but it had been blocked up by a wall in opus reticulatum. Borsari (BC 1888, 21) maintained that it was the PORTA TRIGEMINA , but it is most improbable that the road passing through it would have been blocked up at so early a period as the second century A.D. Nor, as Hulsen points out (Mitt. 1889, 260), does its position suit what we know of the line of the Servian wall. Frank (AJA cit.) attributed it to the wall of the ' City of the four regions,' omitting the Aventine; but later, apparently forgetting the information he had obtained from Lanciani (who stated that, as far as he could remember, the material was cappellaccio), he assumed that the material was Fidenae tufa, which is full of scoriae, and that it belonged to the Palatine wall of the fourth century B.C. (TF 95, 96).

It is probable that a consequence of the Etruscan victory over the Romans at the beginning of the Republic was the dismantling of the fortifications of the city. A treaty such as that concluded with Porsena, in which the Romans were forbidden to carry weapons of iron, would doubtless have included this: and the success of the Gallic invasion can hardly be understood Prof. Hulsen has kindly communicated this view to me, and I fully agree with it. unless Rome was an open town.

As the result of the Gallic invasion, the whole enceinte was enormously reinforced and strengthened, the original line, however, being for the most part, if not entirely, retained.

To the construction of this wall the following passages have generally been referred: (377 B.C.).

（353 B.C.).

It is natural that so great a work as this should have taken a considerable number of years to build.

To this reconstruction belongs all the masonry of larger blocks. Frank remarks that, though the majority of the blocks measure 58-61 cm. high, there is a good deal of irregularity even on the outer face, where he has noted measures as low as 51 cm. and as high as 64, while on the inside, where the agger conceals the blocks, the measurements vary from 40 to 68 cm. The material, however, is entirely Grotta Oscura tufa ; and this seems an even clearer test than that of measurement. The quarry marks too (Ann. d. Inst. 1876, 72; Richter, Antike Steinmetzzeichen) cannot be referred to an earlier period than the fourth century B.C., and, as the stone came from the Grotta Oscura quarries, in the territory of Veii, soon after the fall of that town, it is suggested that they may be Etruscan rather than Roman. In this enceinte the Aventine was for the first time probably included; and a fine piece of wall belonging to it may be seen in the depression between the greater and the lesser Aventine in the Via di Porta S. Paolo. As this meant an increased weakness from the defensive point of view, it was quite natural that the builders of the original wall should have left it and the valley of the circus Maximus out of their scheme. The continuation has been cleared to the north-west of it on the greater Aventine and is almost entirely of Grotta Oscura tufa.

From the porta Collina to the porta Esquilina, where the Servian wall, instead of following the edge of the hill, was obliged to cross the tableland at the base of the Quirinal, Viminal and Esquiline, it was strengthened by a great mound, described by Dionysius as seven stadia in length and 50 feet thick, with a ditch in front of it 30 Roman feet deep and 100 wide. The porta Viminalis was the only gate which passed through this part of the fortifications, which were further strengthened by towers. With a part of the outer wall of the agger near by, it is still preserved in the railway station. Another piece may be seen in the Piazza Manfredo Fanti.

Other parts of the enceinte were fortified in the same way; but this was the agger par excellence, and long after its function had ceased it is spoken of by ancient authors as a prominent feature, and it survived as a local name in the form Superage as late as 105from which the church took the name of Superagius, and even in 1527.

Many other portions of the wall are preserved, but are too insignificant to deserve separate mention, with the exception of an arch on the slope of the Quirinal, in the modern Palazzo Antonelli, which is only 1.05 metres in span, and therefore not a city gate (87 B.C.). For the remains on the Capitol, see ARX.

We cannot admit either that the Palatine was still a separate community when the wall of blocks 2 feet high was built on its north-west side or that this wall was part of a larger enceinte; and we must therefore suppose that it continued to be separately fortified as late as the fourth century B.C. as an additional internal citadel or fort.
 
1 - 17 AGONUS.
According to Festus this was the earlier name of the collis Quirinalis, derived from agere 'to offer sacrifice,' but this was probably simply an invention of the antiquarians, where an even more absurd suggestion is made, that agonus=mons.
 
1 - 18 AGRI NOVI. (CAMPUS ESQUILINUS).
the name in use during the last period of the republic and early empire for that part of the Esquiline plateau that lay outside the porta Esquilina. What its exact limits were, either then or earlier, is not known, but it is said to have been situated north of the via Labicana, and it probably included part of the present Piazza Vittorio Emanuele and the district immediately north of it. It formed a part of what had been the early Esquiline necropolis, a place of burial for prominent Romans as well as for the poor, but it had been reclaimed at the beginning of the Augustan period and was used as a park. It is referred to as Agri novi by Prop. Executions also took place here.
 
1 - 19 AGRIPPAE TEMPLUM. (PANTHEON).
a temple which, with the thermae, Stagnum and Euripus, made up the remarkable group of buildings which Agrippa erected in the campus Martius. According to the inscription on the frieze of the pronaos. This passage is not altogether clear, but it seems probable that the temple was built for the glorification of the gens Iulia, and that it was dedicated in particular to Mars and Venus, the most prominent among the ancestral deities of that family. In the ears of the statue of Venus hung earrings made of the pieces of Cleopatra's pearls. Whether the name refers to the number of deities honoured in the temple, or means 'very holy', is uncertain: but Mommsen's conjecture that the seven niches were occupied by the seven planetary deities is attractive, and Hilsen is now in favour of it. There is no probability in Cassius Dio's second explanation.

In the pronaos of Agrippa's building were statues of himself and Augustus, and on the gable were sculptured ornaments of note. The decoration was done by Diogenes of Athens, and Pliny goes on to say. The position of these Caryatides has been much discussed, but is quite uncertain.

The Pantheon of Agrippa was burned in 80 A.D. and restored by Domitian. Again, in the reign of Trajan, it was struck by lightning and burned. The restoration by Hadrian carried out after 126 was in fact an entirely new construction, for even the foundations of the existing building date from that time. The inscription was probably placed by Hadrian in accordance with his well-known principle in such cases. The restoration ascribed to Antoninus Pius may refer only to the completion of Hadrian's building. Finally, a restoration by Severus and Caracalla in 202 A.D. is recorded in the lower inscription on the architrave. In January, 59 A.D., the Arval Brethren met in the Pantheon; Hadrian held court in his restored edifice; Ammianus speaks of it as one of the wonders of Rome; and it is mentioned in Reg.

For a library situated in or near the Pantheon, see THERMAE AGRIPPAE; THERMAE NERONIANAE.

The building faces due north; it consists of a huge rotunda preceded by a pronaos. The former is a drum of brick-faced concrete, in which numerous brickstamps of the time of Hadrian have been found. which is 6.20 metres thick; the structure of it is most complex and well thought out. On the ground level the amount of solid wall is lessened by seven large niches, alternately trapezoidal and curved (the place of one of the latter being taken by the entrance, which faces due north), and by eight void spaces in the masses of masonry between them, while in the upper story there are chambers above the niches, also reached by an external gallery supported by the middle of the three cornices which ran round the dome. In front of these masses are rectangular projections decorated with columns and pediments alternately triangular and curved, which have been converted into altars. The pavement is composed of slabs of granite, porphyry and coloured marbles; and so is the facing of the walls of the drum, which is, however, only preserved as far as the entablature supported by the columns and pilasters, the facing of the attic having been removed in 1747. The ceiling of the dome is coffered, and was originally gilded ; in the top of it is a circular opening surrounded by a cornice in bronze, 9 metres in diameter, through which light is admitted. The height from it to the pavement is 43.20 metres (144 feet), the same as the inner diameter of the drum. The walls are built of brick-faced concrete, with a complicated system of relieving arches, corresponding to the chambers in the drum, which extend as far as the second row of coffers of the dome; the method of construction of the upper portion is somewhat uncertain (the existence of ribs cannot be proved), but is probably of horizontal courses of bricks gradually inclined inwards. Pumice stone is used in the core for the sake of increased lightness.

The ancient bronze doors are still preserved, though they were repaired in the sixteenth century. The pronaos is rectangular, 34 metres wide and 13.60 deep, and has three rows of Corinthian columns, eight of grey granite in the front row and four of red granite in each of the second and third. Of those which were missing at the east end, as they were already absent earlier, the corner column was replaced by Urban VIII with a column of red granite, and the other two by Alexander VII, with grey columns from the thermae Alexandrinae. The columns support a triangular pediment, in the field of which were bronze decorations; in the frieze is the inscription of Agrippa; and the roof of the portico behind was supported by bronze trusses. This portico was not built after the rotunda, as recent investigations by Colini and Gismondi have shown, and the capitals of its columns are exactly like those of the interior, though the entasis of the columns differs. In front of it was an open space surrounded by colonnades. The hall at the back belongs also to Hadrian's time, and so do the constructions on the east in their first form. The exterior of the drum was therefore hardly seen in ancient times.

The podium of the earlier structure, built by Agrippa, lies about 2.50 metres below the pavement of the later portico; it was rectangular, 43.76 metres wide and 19.82 deep, and faced south, so that the front line of columns of the latter rests on its back wall, while the position of the doorways of the two buildings almost coincides. To the south of the earlier building was a pronaos 21.26 metres wide, so that the plan was similar to that of the temple of Concord. At 2.metres below the pavement of the rotunda there was an earlier marble pavement, which probably belonged to an open area in front of the earlier structure; but a marble pavement of an intermediate period (perhaps that of Domitian) was also found actually above this earlier structure, but below the marble pavement of the pronaos.

The restoration of Severus and Caracalla has been already mentioned; but after it, except for the account by Ammianus Marcellinus, already cited, of Constantius' visit to it, we hear nothing 9 of its history until in 609 Boniface IV dedicated the building as the church of S. Maria ad Martyres. Constantius II removed the bronze tiles in 663; and it was only Gregory III who placed a lead roof over it. That the pine-cone of the Vatican came from the Pantheon is a mediaeval fable; it was a fountain perhaps connected with the SERAPEUM .

The description of it by Magister Gregorius in the twelfth century is interesting, especially for the mention of the sarcophagi, baths and figures which stood in front of the portico. A porphyry urn, added by Leo X, now serves as the sarcophagus of Clement XII in the Lateran. For its mediaeval decoration.

Martin V repaired the lead roof and Nicholas V did the same. Raphael is among the most illustrious of the worthies of the Renaissance who are buried here.

The removal of the roof trusses of the portico by Urban VIII gave rise to the famous pasquinade.
 
1 - 20 AIUS LOCUTIUS, ARA.
an altar erected in 390 B.C. by order of the senate at the north corner of the Palatine in infima Nova via, opposite the grove of Vesta. It was dedicated to the deus indiges, Aius Locutius, the speaking voice. Tradition agreed in relating that in 391 a plebeian, M. Caedicius, heard at night at this point a voice that warned the Romans of the invasion of the Gauls. No attention was paid to this warning until after the event, when the altar was built in expiation. Besides ara, this altar is also referred to as saceUum and templum, but there is no doubt that it was an enclosed altar in the open air. This altar has no connection with that found on the south-west slope of the Palatine near the Velabrum, dedicated sive deo sive deivae.
 
1 - 21 ALBIONARUM LUCUS.
A grove somewhere on the right bank of the Tiber, consecrated to the Albionae, who were probably connected with the protection of the fields.
 
1 - 22 ALMO.
The modern Acquataccio, a stream that rises between the via Latina and the via Appia, receives the water of the modern Fosso del- I'Acqua Santa, flows north-west and west for six kilometres and empties into the Tiber about one kilometre south of the porta Ostiensis. It formed the southern boundary of Region I, and in it the ceremony of bathing the image of Cybele took place annually on 27th March.
 
1 - 23 ALTA SEMITA.
The name given in the Regionary Catalogue to the sixth region of Augustus. This lay between the imperial fora, the east boundary of Region VII, and the north-west boundary of Region IV, and included the Viminal, the Quirinal, the valley between the Quirinal and the Pincian, and the lower slope of the latter hill. This region took its name from that of its principal street, the Alta Semita, which ran north-east along the ridge of the Quirinal to the porta Collina, corresponding with the modern Via del Quirinale and Via Venti Settembre  from the Piazza del Quirinale eastward. The north-eastern part of this street was probably called VICUS PORTAE COLLINAE , if we may infer this from an inscription found near S. Susanna. The ancient pavement lies at an average depth of 1.83 metres below the present level.
 
1 - 24 AMICITIA, ARA.
An altar erected in 28 A.D. by order of the senate, dedicated to the amicitia of Tiberius, probably as illustrated in the case of Sejanus. Its site is entirely unknown.
 
1 - 25 AMPHITHEATRUM.
a form of building that originated, apparently, in Campania, but was developed in Rome after the end of the republic. It was widely diffused throughout Italy, and has always been regarded as a distinctly Roman structure. It was intended primarily for gladiatorial contests and venationes, which had previously taken place in the forum. Around the open area of the forum temporary seats had been erected, forming an irregular ellipse. This was the reason for the shape of the amphitheatre, and for the name itself which means 'having seats on all sides.' This word, however, does not occur before the Augustan era, and was at first applied to the circus also; in the inscription on the building at Pompeii we find spectacula used.

The amphitheatres erected in the city of Rome itself were the following:
 
1 - 26 AMPHITHEATRUM CALIGULAE.
begun by Caligula near the Saepta, but left unfinished, and abandoned by Claudius. See AQUA VIRGO.
 
1 - 27 AMPHITHEATRUM CASTRENSE.
 This name, found only in the Regionary Catalogue, belongs without doubt to the structure of which some remains are still visible, near the SESSORIUM . Castrense is to be explained as meaning' belonging to the imperial court,' and the brickwork is that of the time of Trajan, who was especially fond of buildings of this kind. It is possible that this is the θέατρονmentioned by Pausanias as one of the most important buildings of Trajan.

It was elliptical in form, with axes 88.5 and 78 metres in length, and constructed entirely of brick and brick-faced concrete. The exterior wall consisted of three stories of open arcades, adorned with pilasters and Corinthian capitals. When the Aurelian wall was built, the amphitheatre was utilized as a part of the line of fortification, the wall being joined to it in the middle of the east and west sides. The outer half of the building was thus made a projecting bastion, and the open arcades of the exterior were walled up, the ground level outside being at the same time lowered. The inner half was evidently pulled down, so that little use can have been made of the edifice at that time.

Drawings of the sixteenth century represent all three stories, but since that time the upper one has entirely disappeared and all but a few fragments of the second. The cavea and the wall of the arena have also been destroyed, so that the remaining portion consists of the walled-up arcades of the lowest story. See Ill. which shows its condition in 1615; ASA 96.

Rivoira puts it in the first half of the third century.
 
1 - 28 AMPHITHEATRUM FLAVIUM.
ordinarily known as the Colosseum, built by Vespasian, in the depression between the Velia, the Esquiline and the Caelian, a site previously occupied by the stagnum of Nero's domus Aurea. Vespasian carried the structure to the top of the second arcade of the outer wall and of the maenianum secundum of the cavea , and dedicated it before his death in 79 A.D. Titus added the third and fourth stories2 (ib.), and celebrated the dedication of the enlarged building in 80 with magnificent games that lasted one hundred days. Domitian is said to have completed the building ad clipea which probably refers to the bronze shields that were placed directly beneath the uppermost cornice and to additions on the inside.

There are indications of changes or additions by Nerva and Trajan, and it was restored by Antoninus Pius. In 2it was struck by lightning, and so seriously damaged that no more gladiatorial combats could be held in the building until 222-223, when the repairs begun by Elagabalus were at least partially completed by Alexander Severus, although they seem to have continued into the reign of Gordianus III. In 250 the building was presumably restored by Decius, after a fire caused by another stroke of lightning. It was injured by the earthquake of 442, and restorations by different officials are recorded in the years immediately succeeding, and again in 470. Some of the inscriptions set up on the former occasion in honour of Theodosius II and Valentinian III were cut on marble blocks which had originally served as seats. Repairs were made after another earthquake by the prefect Basilius, who was probably consul in 508, and finally by Eutharich, the son-in-law of Theodoric, in preparation for the last recorded venationes, which took place in 523. The last gladiatorial combats occurred in 404.

The Colosseum was injured by an earthquake in the pontificate of Leo IV (in 847). In the eleventh and twelfth centuries houses and isolated 'cryptae ' within the Colosseum are frequently mentioned in documents of the archives of S. Maria Nova, as though it were already in ruins. Gradual destruction continued until the eighteenth century, while the work of restoration has gone on intermittently since the beginning of the nineteenth. The north side of the outer wall is standing, comprising the arches numbered xxiii to LIV, with that part of the building which is between it and the inner wall supporting the colonnade, and practically the whole skeleton of the structure between this inner wall and the arena-that is, the encircling and radiating walls on which the cavea with its marble seats rested. The marble seats and lining of the cavea, together with everything in the nature of decoration,' have disappeared.

The amphitheatre is elliptical in form. Its main axis, running north-west-south-east, is 188 metres in length, and its minor axis 156. The exterior is constructed of large blocks of travertine-a fact that contributed greatly to the astonishment of Constantius; and in the interior Vespasian erected a skeleton of travertine blocks where the greatest pressure had to be resisted, which was not carried higher than the second story. The remainder of the inner walls are of blocks of and of concrete, with and without brick facing, the former being used where there was more pressure. Some tufa and sperone is also employed in the lower part of the inner walls. The outer wall, or facade, is 48.50 metres high, and stands upon a stylobate, which is raised two steps a pavement of travertine. This pavement is 17.50 metres wide, extended around the whole building. Its outer edge is marked by a row of stone cippi-five of which on the east side are in situ with holes cut on the inner side to hold the ends of barriers connecting these posts with the wall of the building. The outer wall itself is divided into four stories, of which the lower three consist of rows of open arcades, a style of architecture borrowed from the theatre of Marcellus. The arches of the lower arcade are 7.05 metres high and 4.20 wide; the pillars between them are 2.40 metres wide and 2.70 deep. In front of these pillars are engaged columns of the Doric order, which support an entablature 2.35 metres high, but without the distinguishing characteristics of this order. There were eighty arches in the lower arcade, of which the four at the ends of the two axes formed the main entrances to the amphitheatre, and were unnumbered. The remaining seventy-six were numbered, the numbers being cut on the facade just beneath the architrave. Above the entablature is an attic of the same height, with projections above the columns, which serve as pedestals for the engaged columns of the second arcade. This arcade has the same dimensions as the lowest, except that the arches are only 6.45 metres high. The half-columns are of the Ionic order, and in turn support an entablature 2.metres in height, but not in perfect Ionic style. Above this is a second attic, 1.95 metres high, on which the columns of the third arcade rest. The last is of the Corinthian order, and its arches are 6.40 metres high. Above this is a third entablature and attic. In each of the second and third arcades was a statue.

The attic above the third arcade is 2.metres high, and is pierced by small rectangular windows over every second arch. On it rests the upper division of the wall, which is solid and adorned with flat Corinthian pilasters in place of the half-columns of the lower arcades, but shows numerous traces of rude reconstruction in the third century. Above the pilasters is an entablature, and between every second pair of pilasters is a window cut through the wall-. Above these openings is a row of consoles-three between each pair of pilasters. In these consoles are sockets for the masts which projected upward through corresponding holes in the cornice and supported the awnings (velaria) that protected the cavea.

Within this outer wall, at a distance of 5.80 metres, is a second wall with corresponding arches; and 4.50 metres inside of this a third which divides the building into two main sections. On the lower floor, between these three walls, are two lofty arched corridors or ambulatories, encircling the entire building; on the second floor, two corridors like those below, except that the inner one is divided into two, an upper and a lower; and on the third floor two more. In the inner corridor on the second floor, and in both on the third, are flights of steps very ingeniously arranged, which lead to the topmost story, and afford access to the upper part of the second tier of seats. Within the innermost of the three walls just mentioned are other walls parallel to it, and radiating walls, struck from certain points within the oval and perpendicular to its circumference. These radiating walls correspond in number to the piers of the lower arcade, and are divided into three parts, so as to leave room for two more corridors round the building. This system of radiating walls supported the sloping floor (cavea) on which the rows of marble seats (gradus) were placed. Underneath, in corridors and arches, are other flights of steps which lead to all parts of the cavea, through openings called vomitoria. They are arranged in fours.

The arena itself is elliptical, the major axis being 86 metres long and the minor 54. All round the arena was a fence, built to protect the spectators from the attacks of the wild beasts, and behind it a narrow passage paved with marble. Above this passage was the podium, a platform raised about 4 metres above the arena, on which were placed the marble chairs of the most distinguished spectators. These chairs seem to have been assigned to corporations and officials, not to individuals as such, until the time of Constantine, when they began to be assigned to families an rarely to individuals. This continued until the fifth century, when possession by individuals became more common. The names of these various owners were cut in the pavement of the podium, on the seats themselves, and above the cornice, and many of these inscriptions have been preserved. When a seat passed from one owner to another, the old name was erased and a new one substituted. The front of the podium was protected by a bronze balustrade.

From the podium  the cavea sloped upward as far as the innermost of the three walls described above. It was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls; the lower section (maenianum primum) contained about twenty rows of seats (gradus) and the upper section (maenianum secundum), further subdivided into maenianum superius and inferius, about sixteen. These maeniana were also divided into cunei, or wedge-shaped sections, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. The gradus were covered with marble, and when assigned to particular corporations the name was cut on the stone. Eleven such inscriptions have been found, and indicateD that space was assigned by measure and not according to the number of persons (cf. the assignment to the Fratres Arvales, CILvi. 2059 =3236. Each individual seat could, however, be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus and number, as was done elsewhere.

Behind the maenianum secundum the wall rose to a height of 5 metreS above the cavea, and was pierced with doors and windows communicating with the corridor behind. On this wall was a Corinthian colonnade, which together with the outer wall, supported a flat roof. The columns were of cipollino and granite, dating from the Flavian period.7Behind them, protected by the roof, was the maenianum summum in ligneis, which contained wooden seats for women. These seats were approached from above by a vaulted corridor, lighted by the windows between the pilasters (p. 8) as has been supposed by Hulsen. On the roof was standing room for the pullati, or poorest classes of the population.8 The modern terrace is lower than this roof was, and about at the level of the floor of the corridor behind the wooden seats. Of the four principal entrances, those at the north and south ends of the minor axis were for the imperial family, and the arches here were wider and more highly ornamented than the rest. The entrance on the north seems to have been connected with the Esquiline by a porticus. A wide passage led directly from this entrance to the imperial box on the podium. A corresponding box on the opposite side of the podium was probably reserved for the praefectus urbi. The entrances at the ends of the major axis led directly into the arena.

The floor of the arena, which must have been of wood, rested on lofty substructures, consisting of walls, some of which follow the curve of the building, while others are parallel to the major axis. They stand on a brick pavement and are from 5.50 to 6.08 metres high. These substructures are entered by subterranean passages, on the lines of the major and minor axes. Another such passage, resembling a cryptoporticus, starts from a raised substructure, projecting a little beyond the line of the podium, not far to the east of the state entrance on the south side, and leads to the buildings of Claudius on the Caelian, and is usually ascribed to Commodus. In the substructures are traces of dens for wild beasts, elevators, and mechanical appliances of various sorts, and provision was made for the drainage of the water which flows so abundantly into this hollow and which was carried off in a sewer connecting with that running under the via S. Gregorio. The masonry of the substructures dates from the first century to the end of the fifth.

The statement in the Regionary Catalogue (Reg. III), that the amphitheatre had 87,000 loca, cannot refer to persons but pedes, and even so, it is probably incorrect, for the total seating capacity cannot have exceeded forty-five thousand, with standing room on the roof for about five thousand more.

Nine published fragments of the Marble Plan represent parts of the amphitheatre, and there are a few others of little importance and uncertain position.
 
1 - 29 AMPHITHEATRUM NERONIS.
A wooden structure, erected by Nero on the site of that of STATILIUS TAURUS . It was finished in a year, but is spoken of by Tacitus in such a way as to imply that it was not a remarkable building.
 
1 - 30 AMPHITHEATRUM STATILII TAURI.
an amphitheatre built of stone by L. Statilius Taurus in 29 B.C., probably in the southern part of the campus Martius. It was burned in 64 A.D., and Nero built another on the same site. Caligula is said to have looked upon it with scorn, perhaps on account of its small size.
 
1 - 31 ANAGLYPHA TRAIANI. (ROSTRA).
the original platform from which the orators addressed the people. It took its name from the beaks of the ships captured from the people of Antium in 338 B.C. with which it was decorated. It was situated on the south side of the Comitium in front of the Curia Hostilia in close connection with the SEPULCRUM ROMULI , i.e. between the Comitium and forum, so that the speaker could address the people assembled in either. It is spoken of as the most prominent place in the forum. It was consecrated as a templum, and on it were placed statues of famous men in such numbers that at times they had to be removed to make way for others; while the COLUMNA ROSTRATA C. DUILII  stood on or close by it.

The name rostra vetera is only used in Suet. Aug. 100; where it refers to the rostra transferred by Caesar to the north-west end of the forum in contradistinction to the rostra at the temple of Divus Iulius; though it is commonly and conveniently used to signify the republican rostra in contradistinction to the rostra of Caesar.

Excavations in the Comitium have brought to light remains which must be attributed to the republican rostra, though much doubt attaches to their exact interpretation. 'It would appear that about the middle of the fifth century B.C. the Comitium was separated from the forum by a low platform, upon which stood the archaic cippus, the cone, and probably an earlier monument, represented by the existing sacellum. After the fire that followed the Gallic invasion, the first platform was replaced by a higher, to which a straight flight of steps led up from the second level of the COMITIUM . A wall, 3 metres in front of these steps, perhaps formed part of the rostra. In this platform was an irregular space, bounded by walls on each side, enclosing the monuments in question. Whether remains of the platform of this period exist, or whether the cappellaccio slabs which have been attributed to it are really the bedding for the tufa slabs of the next period, is a moot point. According to another theory, a kerb along the northern edge of the cappellaccio pavement in front of the basilica Aemilia marked the front line of the original rostra.

There is no trace of any alteration in the rostra corresponding with the third level of the Comitium; but in correspondence with the fourth we have a reconstruction of the rostra on a new plan. 'Its remains consist (I) of a curved structure of large blocks of Monte Verde tufa, forming two steps about 35 cm. high, which rested on a foundation of cappellaccio (grey) tufa cm. high; ( of a low corridor or canalis, 1 metre wide and about 75 cm. high, parallel to the curved line of the steps and about 9 metres from them; ( of a platform, or suggestus, to the west of the niger lapis, and ( of a row of shafts, or pozzi, running east and west, about 6.75 metres distant from the platform. The portion of the platform ... .on which the curved flight of steps rested, lay about one metre above the floor of the Comitium.' It has a fine pavement of Monte Verde tufa, along the front of which runs a raised kerb. According to one view these monuments are attributable to the period of Sulla. Whether the 'Tomb of Romulus ' was hidden from view at this period or later, is uncertain.

The curved front of the rostra, as represented by the canalis with the beaks of ships with which it was adorned, is held to be represented in a coin of 45 B.C. of Lollius Palikanus. The arcade at the back of the rostra Augusti, which Boni has called the rostra Caesaris, belongs to the time of Sulla, and is simply a low viaduct to support the CLIVUS CAPITOLINUS  and a street branching off from it.
 
1 - 32 ANIO NOVUS.
an aqueduct, which, like the aqua Claudia, was begun by Caligula in 38 A.D. and completed in 52 A.D. by Claudius, who dedicated them both on 1st August. The cost of the two was 350,000,000 sesterces, or £3,500,000 sterling. Originally the water was taken from the river Anio at the forty-second mile of the via Sublacensis; but, as the water was apt to be turbid, Trajan made use of the two uppermost of the three lakes formed by Nero for the adornment of his villa at Subiaco-the Simbruina stagna of Tac. Ann. xiv. 22, thus lengthening the aqueduct to 58 miles 700 paces. The length of 62 miles given to the original aqueduct in the inscription of Claudius on the PORTA MAIOR must be an error for 52; for an unsuccessful attempt to explain it otherwise see Mel. 1906. We have a record of repairs to it in an inscription of 381 A.D., but it is uncertain what part of it is meant. Its volume at the intake was 4,738 quinariae, or 196,627 cubic metres in 24 hours. Its course outside the city cannot be described here.

From its piscina (or filtering tank) near the seventh milestone of the via Latina it was carried on the lofty arches of the aqua Claudia, in a channel immediately superposed on the latter; and it was the highest in level of all the aqueducts that came into the city.

These arches ended behind the HORTI PALLANTIANI , the former Vigna Belardi, where the terminal piscina of these two aqueducts was situated.

Like the Claudia, the Anio Novus supplied the highest parts of the city. Before the reforms introduced by Frontinus, it was freely used to supply the deficiencies (largely due to dishonesty) of other aqueducts, and, being turbid, rendered them impure. The removal of its defects, however, is said to have rendered it equal to the Marcia.
 
1 - 33 ANIO VETUS.
an aqueduct commenced in 272 B.C., which took its supply from the river Anio, at a point opposite Vicovaro, the ancient Varia, 8 miles from Tibur. The meaning of the phrase in Frontinus i. 6, is therefore quite uncertain. He gives it a length of 43,000 paces, for all of which it ran underground, no doubt for strategic reasons; and it is sixth in order of level. But the cippi of Augustus seem to make the length even greater (8 kilometres against 63.7), and the line may have been shortened in Frontinus' day (i. 18). It was repaired by Q. Marcius Rex (see AQUA MARCIA), by Agrippa in 33 B.C., and by Augustus in 11-4 B.C. It acquired the name of Vetus when the Anio Novus was built. Frontinus found the amount of water at the intake to be 4398 quinariae, or 182,5cubic metres in 24 hours.

We have several cippi of Augustus, some of which, together with a long stretch of its channel going northwards from the porta Esquilina, have been found within the city; the reckoning, as usual, beginning from Rome; and also the inscription of an aquarius aquae Anionis veteris castelli viae Latinae contra dracones.

The original subterranean channel has been found and destroyed just inside the Porta Maggiore; the intrados was at 46.m. above sea-level. Less than two miles from the city, a part of it was turned into the specus Octavianus, which reached the district of the VIA NOVA  near the HORTI ASINIANI q.v. The channel is believed to have been identified at various points; but the site of the via Nova is unfortunately quite uncertain. Lanciani believes that it crossed the via Appia by the real (not the so-called) Arch of Drusus, near the vicus Drusianus (see AQUA DRUSIA).

As a result of Frontinus' reforms the turbid water of the Anio Vetus was largely used for watering gardens and for the meaner uses of the city.
 
1 - 34 ANTON(IN)IANA.
this word, in large letters, formed of tiles was seen in the fifteenth-seventeenth centuries near the ARCUS DOLABELLAE q.v.), but to what it refers is doubtful. See also CASTRA PEREGRINA.
 
1 - 35 ATONINUS, TEMPLUM. (DIVUS MARCUS, TEMPLUM).
A temple of Marcus Aurelius which probably stood just west of his column , in the same relation to it as the temple of Trajan to his column. It was erected to the deified emperor by the senate, and is mentioned only once afterwards. 
 
1 - 36 ANTONINUS ET FAUSTINA, TEMPLUM.
the temple built by Antoninus Pius on the north side of the Sacra via at the entrance to the forum, just wast of the basilica Aemilia, in honour of his deified wife, the empress Faustina, who died in 141 A.D. After the death of Antoninus himself in 16the temple was dedicated to both together. The inscription on the architrave records the first dedication, and that added afterwards on the frieze records the econd. In onsequence of this double dedication the proper name of the temple was templum d. Antonini et d. Faustinae, but it was also called templum Faustinae and templum d. Pii. It is represented on coins of Faustina.

In the seventh or eighth century this temple, apparently in good condition, was converted into the church of S. Lorenzo in Miranda, the floor of which is about metres above the ancient level. Excavations in front of the temple were undertaken in 1546, and in 1899 and following years, when the whole eastern side was exposed to view. It was hexastyle prostyle, with two columns on each side, besides those at the corners, and pilasters in antis. The columns are of cipollino, metres high and 1.45 in diameter at the base, with Corinthian capitals of white marble, and support an entablature of white marble which probably encircled the whole building. The existing remains consist of portions of the cella wall of peperino, built into the walls of the church, extending for 20 metres on the north-west and on the south-east side; the columns of the pronaos, which stand free from the church with the exception of the two nearest the antae; the architrave and frieze of the facade and sides as far as the cella wall extends, but only a small part of the cornice; and the wide flight of steps leading down to the Sacra via, in the middle of which are the remains of an altar. Some fragments of a colossal male and female statue, and a few other pieces of sculpture, have been found. The whole temple was covered with slabs of marble, which have disappeared. The frieze on the sides of the temple was beautifully sculptured in relief with garlands, sacrificial instruments and griffins, and on the columns are numerous inscriptions and figures, some of which are Christian and have been scratched as early as the fourth century A.D.
 
1 - 37 ANTRUM (Notitia). ATRIUM (Curiosum) CYCLOPIS.
mentioned only in the Regionary Catalogue (Region I), was probably a grotto in the side of the hill, above the VALLIS CAMENARUM . While it is not possible to decide with certainty between these two readings, antrum is probably correct, and this grotto may possibly be the antrum Volcani of Juvenal. The antrum Cyclopis gave its name to a vicus Cyclopis (CIL vi. 2226), which may have extended south-west to the via Appia.
 
1 - 38 ἈΦΡΔΙΣΙΟΝ:
apparently a shrine of Venus on the Palatine, mentioned only once, under date of 193 A.D. It is possible, but not very probable, that the name Venus Palatina, given in jest to L. Crassus may be based on the existence of this shrine.
 
1 - 39 APOLLINARE.
A precinct in the prata Flaminia, sacred to Apollo, where the first temple to this divinity was dedicated in 431 B.C.
 
1 - 40 APOLLO, AEDES.
The first temple of Apollo in Rome, in the campus Martius, vowed in 433 B.C. because of a plague that had raged in the city, and dedicated in 431 by the consul Cn. Julius. It was in or close to an earlier cult centre of the god, the APOLLINAR , either a grove or altar. This was the only temple of Apollo in Rome until Augustus built that on the Palatine, and being a foreign cult was outside the pomerium. Therefore it was a regular place for extra-pomerial meetings of the senate.

The site is variously described as extra portam  Carmentalem  inter forum holitorium etcircum Flaminium, in pratis Flaminiis near the forum, near the Capitol, near the theatre of Marcellus. These indications point definitely to a site just north of the theatre of Marcellus and east of the porticus Octaviae, on the street that led through the porta Carmentalis to the campus Martius, a little south of the present Piazza Campitelli.

Twice Pliny speaks of works of art in the temple of Apollo Sosianus, and this epithet is usually explained as referring to a restoration of this temple, carried out by a Sosius, probably C. Sosius, consul in 32 B.C. and governor of Syria. Livy's statement  (353 B.C.) muris turribusque reficiendis consumptum et aedes Apollinis dedicataest) may refer to an earlier restoration, as the direct evidence of Asconius precludes the possibility of any second temple. This temple was also known as that of Apollo Medicus, and in 179 B.C. the censors let the contract for building a porticus from it to the Tiber, behind the temple of Spes. The MSS. read etpost Spei ad Tiberim aedem Apollinis Medici, which Frank prefers-see below). In Greek it appears as Ἀπολλώνιον. The shedding of tears for three days by the statue of Apollo, undoubtedly that in this temple, is cited among the prodigia at the death of the Younger Scipio.

In this temple were some famous works of art, brought probably for the most part to Rome by C. Sosius-paintings by Aristides of Thebes, several statues by Philiscus of Rhodes, an Apollo citharoedus by Timarchides, a statue of Apollo of cedar wood from Seleucia, and the celebrated group of the Niobids, which even the ancients were doubtful whether they should ascribe to Scopas or Praxiteles. The day of dedication of the temple in the Augustan period was 23rd September. Below the cloisters of S. Maria in Campitelli are remains of its podium wall, metres long, over 4 high and over 2 thick. Delbruck assumed without question that it was a part of the original structure; but Frank, while admitting that the core, of blocks of cappellaccio tufa, may belong to it, maintains, owing to the use in the facing of tufa from Monte Verde (the southern end of the Janiculum) that the rest belongs to the restoration of 179 A.D., except some concrete with facing of opus reticulatum, attributable to the restoration of Sosius.
 
1 - 41 APOLLO ARGENTEUS.
probably a silver statue of Apollo which seems to have stood on or near the via Triumphalis in the north-west suburbs of the city, for an inscription found on Monte Mario records a tomb built interius agro Apollinis argentei. Besides ager Apollinis argentei, ab Apolline argenteo occurs on one inscription, and probably on a second, indicating that the statue had given its name to the district. See BELLONA PULVINENSIS, AEDES.
 
1 - 42 APOLLO CAELISPEX.
A monument, undoubtedly a statue, in Region XI, mentioned only in the Regionary Catalogue. It probably stood between the forum Boarium and the porta Trigemina.
 
1 - 43 APOLLO PALATINUS, AEDES.
The second and far the most famous temple of Apollo in Rome, on the Palatine within the pomerium, on ground that had been struck by lightning and therefore made public property. It was vowed by Augustus in 36 B.C. during his campaign against Sextus Pompeius, begun in the same year, and dedicated 9th October, B.C. 28; probably represented on a coin of Caligula (see also DIVUS AUGUSTUS, TEMPLUM).

This temple was the most magnificent of Augustus' buildings, constructed of solid blocks of white Luna le, probably either prostyle hexastyle or peripteral and octastyle. The intercolumnar space was equal to thrice the diameter of the columns; on the roof was a chariot of the sun and statues by Bupalos and Athenis; and the doors were decorated with reliefs in ivory, one representing the rescue of Delphi from the Celts, and the other the fate of the Niobids. Before the entrance to the temple stood a marble statue of the god, and an altar surrounded by four oxen by Myron In the cella was a statue of Apollo by Scopas, one of Diana by Timotheus, and of Latona by Cephisodotus. Itis uncertain whether Propertius' distich.

refers to these statues in the cella, or to the relief in the pediment. Golden gifts were deposited in the temple by Augustus (Mon. Anc. xxiv. 54) and it contained a collection of seal rings and jewels (dactyliotheca) dedicated by Marcellus, hanging lamps, and a statue of Apollo Comaeus, brought to Rome in the time of Verus.

For a possible representation of the statue of Apollo Actius, see ARCUS CONSTANTINI.

The temple was connected with, and perhaps surrounded by, a porticus with columns of giallo antico, between which were statues of the fifty daughters of Danaus and before them equestrian statues of their unfortunate husbands, the sons of Aegyptus. It is possible that the ARCUS OCTAVII  formed the entrance to this porticus. Adjoining, or perhaps forming a part of the porticus, was a library, bibliotheca Apollinis, consisting of two sections, one for Greek and one for Latin books, with medallion portraits of famous writers on the walls, and large enough for meetings of the senate. The space enclosed within the porticus was the area Apollinis, or area aedis Apollinis.

The Sibylline books were brought here from the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol and placed beneath the pedestal of the statue of Apollo, and they were saved when the temple itself was burned. Part of the ceremony of the ludi saeculares took place at this temple, and it is mentioned incidentally by Tacitus and in Hist. Aug. Claud. 4 in connection with a meeting of the senate. It is mentioned in the Notitia (Reg. X), but was burned down on 18th March, 363 Besides Palatinus, the usual epithet of the god worshipped in this temple we find navalis, Actius, Actiacus, and Rhamnusius.

The facade of the original temple was Ionic, if Richmond cit. is right; while it was restored in the Corinthian order by Domitian, if a relief in the Uffizi is correctly interpreted.

The site of the temple has been much discussed. Three main theories have been brought forward, according to which it should be placed (a) in the garden of the Villa Mills; (b) in the area of the so-called Vigna Barberini, the centre of which is occupied by the old church of S. Maria in Pallara or S. Sebastiano (for the Regio Palladii or Pallaria see DOMUS AUGUSTIANA,p. 165); (c) to the south of the DOMUS AUGUSTI , facing over the circus Maximus, being identified with what is generally known as the temple of JUPITER VICTOR or PROPUGNATOR .

(a) The first theory may be dismissed briefly. The further study of the fragments of the forma Urbis and the progress of the excavations have shown that there cannot possibly have been room for the temple and area of Apollo in the garden to the north-east of the actual Villa Mills.

(b) The second theory, which is that of Hulsen, is apparently more in accordance with some of the literary testimony than the third. At present we do not know what this area contains; and all that is to be seen belongs to the time of Domitian. The temple was burnt down in 363, it is true; but it is only to be expected that some remains of it exist; and the question could be settled by a few days' excavation.

(c) The third theory is on the whole the most satisfactory. What remains of the temple is a podium of concrete of the Augustan period, with a long flight of steps, facing south-west. This has been recently cleared, but no report has been published. On the south-east part of it is built over the mosaic pavements of a room and the cement floor of an open tank of a house of a very slightly earlier period (perhaps the domus Palatina, a part of which was destroyed for the erection of the temple). A hypocaust on the south-west, five tiles of which bear the stamp. 1 belonging to another (?) house in front of the temple, has been demolished to give place to the steps, and vaulted substructions of this house may be seen below on the face of the hill. It is very difficult to think of any other temple but that of Apollo for the erection of which such a house would have been demolished. See Parker, Historical Photographs, 2794. It is, too, certainly a strong argument for the contiguity of the temple of Apollo and the house of Hortensius that the temple site was apparently brought for an extension of this house.

Another point is the rough identification of both in the Augustan age with the site of Romulus' hut and Evander's citadel, both of which stood on the south-west side of the hill.

It seems, too, that the Carmen Saeculare, sung from the steps of the temple, would have far more point were the temple of Diana visible on the Aventine opposite, with those of Fides on the Capitol, and of Honos and Virtus near the porta Capena (both of which are named in it) also within view.

On the other hand, the passages in regard to ROMA QUADRATA, etc. are certainly much more difficult to interpret. There is little room for the area Palatina in front of the temple; and the attempt to make it face north-east will not hold with the remains themselves. Remains of a part of the portico may be identified under the Flavian domus Augustiana: while the libraries, if correctly identified with the two apsidal halls to the south-west of the triclinium of that house, must have been entirely reconstructed by Domitian.
 
1 - 44 APOLLO SANDALIARIUS.
a famous statue of Apollo erected by Augustus in the VICUS SANDALIARIUS .
 
1 - 45 APOLLO, TEMPLUM.
In the Liber Pontificalis, in the life of S. Peter, we the following statement: 'sepultus estvia Aurelia in  templo Apollinis': but this is a misnomer.
 
1 - 46 APOLLO TORTOR.
a shrine (?) somewhere in Rome, probably of Apollo as the flayer of Marsyas, where the words "dorthin aus Rom verschleppt" show that the author is not aware that S. Eusebio is in Rome-but Hulsen, who is inclined to accept the identification with Apollo Sandaliarius, believes the words quoted to be a gloss, or as the punisher of slaves.
 
1 - 47 APPIADES.
a fountain in front of the temple of Venus Genetrix in the forum Iulium. In two passages Ovid speaks of one Appias, and in one passage of Appiades, whence it is to be inferred that several statues of Appias, probably a water nymph, surrounded the fountain. Pliny states that Asinius Pollio had a statue of the Appiades by Stephanus, and this may have been a copy of that in the forum Iulium. The name has not yet been explained, as the aqua Appia did not extend to this part of the city.
 
1 - 48 AQUA ALEXANDRI(A)NA.
* an aqueduct which takes its name from its con- structor, Alexander Severus. It seems to be referred to as forma Iovi in a document of 993 A.D.

The springs were used by Sixtus V for the Acqua Felice (1585-7), but the whole course of the aqueduct was only identified in the seventeenth century by Fabretti, whose accurate description of its interesting remains is followed by LA 380-393 ; LR 56. Its course from the third mile of the via Labicana towards the city is quite uncertain, and the 'nymphaeum Alexandri,' the so-called 'trofei di Mario,' is the terminal fountain of the AQUA IULIA ; though the piscina of the Vigna Conti, generally attributed to the THERMAE HELENIANAE , may have belonged to it.
 
1 - 49 AQUA ALSIETINA.
an aqueduct constructed by Augustus (and therefore also called Augusta), which drew its supply from the lacus Alsietinus (Lago di Martignano), with some additions near Careiae (Galera) from the lacus Sabatinus, 6 miles to the right of the fourteenth mile of the via Clodia. It was 22,172 paces long, of which 358 were on arches. Its supply was only 392 quinariae, all of which was used outside the city. The quality of the water was indeed so bad that it was probably intended mainly for the NAUMACHIA AUGUSTI , behind which it ended, the surplus being used for gardens and irrigation, except when the bridges were under repair, and it was the only supply available for the Transtiberine region. Frontinus' statement that in level it was the lowest of all requires qualification. A portion of its channel has recently been discovered to the south of that of the AQUA TRAIANA, and at a considerably lower level. The identification of its channel and terminal castellum with the remains described by Bartoli, which lay a good deal further to the north, below Tasso's oak, must therefore be given up. The aqueduct is referred to in an inscrip- tion of Augustus, which mentions formam Mentis attributam rivo Aquae Augustae quaepervenit in nemus Caesarum.
 
1 - 50 AQUA ANNIA
An aqueduct mentioned in Not. app.; Pol. As both the Anio Vetus and Novus are omitted in the list, it is probable that this is a corruption, especially as we have no other knowledge of an aqua Annia; and the same applies to the AQUA ATTICA, which is also found in the list.
 
1 - 51 AQUA ANTONINIANA. (AQUA MARCIA).
 constructed in 144-140 B.C. by Q. Marcius Rex, the water being brought to the Capitol in the latter year. He had been commissioned by the senate to repair the Appia and Anio. The total cost was 180,000,000 sesterces or £1,800,000 sterling.

Two arches of this aqueduct may be represented on a coin of C. Marcius Censorinus, and five arches on coins of L. Marcius Philippus.

It was repaired by Agrippa in 33 B.C. and again by Augustus, with the rest of the aqueducts, between and 4 B.C. Rivos aquarum omnium refecit, in the inscription of the latter year on the monumental arch by which it was carried over the via Tiburtina, later incorporated in the Aurelian wall as part of the PORTA TIBURTINA.

Numerous cippi belonging to this restoration;  and 8have been found, including the 1215th from Rome, which stood only about 3.5 kilometres from the springs, and about 86.6 from Rome. This corresponds fairly closely with Frontinus' measurement of 61,7101 paces (91.4 kilometres) : whereas the distance from the springs by road was 38 miles along the via Sublacensis, from which they lay 200 paces to the left, or 3 miles to the right of the thirty-sixth milestone of the via Valeria (Plin. and Strabo loc. cit. are in error). Augustus also added another spring, the aqua Augusta, which lay 800 paces further up, which doubled the volume of the aqueduct. The supply at the springs was 4690 quinariae, or 194,635 cubic metres in 24 hours.

The same group of springs are still in use for the modern water supply of Rome, and are now, as then, famous for coldness and purity; though, owing to the fact that the floor of the Anio valley has risen since Roman times, it is impossible to identify them exactly.

Nero outraged public opinion by bathing in its springs: but the aqueduct itself seems to have yielded but little to the city in his day, owing to the depredations of private persons, and a further restoration was carried out by Titus in 79 A.D. there is evidence of repairs by Hadrian; and others were probably made by Septimius Severus in 196 A.D. (CIL vi. 1247); while in 212-3 Caracalla cleared the springs, made some new tunnels, and added another spring, the fons Antoninianus, in connection no doubt with the construction of the branch to his thermae.

The aqua Marcia was joined by the AQUA TEPULA  and the AQUA IULIA  before the point where it emerged from its underground course, near the sixth mile of the via Latina; and their channels were carried above it on the same arches, and are to be seen in section in the Aurelian wall, just to the right of the PORTA MAIOR . From this point they have been made use of by it as far as the PORTA TIBURTINA, soon after which they begin to run underground once more, and reach their terminal castellum just inside the porta Collina, at the north angle of the thermae Diocletiani.

For all this stretch there were cippi of Augustus bearing the names of the three aqueducts.

The regions served by the main channel of the aqua Marcia were in the neighbourhood of the castellum; numerous lead pipes were also found near the porta Viminalis, which served for its distribution.. It also ran to the Quirinal.

The water was brought to the Capitol by Marcius himself in 140,  and where it issued forth must have stood his statue mentioned in the diploma of Nero of 64 A.D. The last word makes it unlikely that Q. Marcius Q. f. Rex Cos. is the base in question.

The rivus Herculaneus (not to be confused with the stream of the same name, cf. ANIO NOVUS) diverged from the aqua Marcia; the castellum is incorporated in the Aurelian wall, in the fifth tower south of the porta S. Lorenzo and ran across the Caelian, though at too low a level to supply it, for traces of it and especially of a conduit formed of solid stone blocks with a circular orifice through them, which may have belonged to it), to its terminal castellum over the PORTA CAPENA , which was therefore called madida.

Hulsen attributes a cippus of Augustus, found near the Lateran, bearing the name Marcia and the number 3 (CIL vi. 31560) to this aqueduct: but there is another hypothesis admissible in regard to it. Before the construction of the aqua Claudia, so Frontinus tells us (ii. 76), the Caelian and Aventine were supplied by the Marcia and Iulia; and it is quite possible that the cippus, and both the ARCUS DOLABELLAE ET SILANI  and the ARCUS LENTULI ET CRISPINI  belonged to this conduit. But afterwards these hills only received water from the Claudia by the ARCUS NERONIANI  until Trajan took the Marcia amplo opere to the Aventine (Frontinus ii. 87).2 It appears as AQUA HERCULEA  in Not. app. and Pol. Silv. 545. This conduit may be the forma of Eins.

Another branch, the starting-point of which is uncertain, though it may have been near the third mile of the via Latina, was constructed by Caracalla to supply his thermae . It crossed the via Appia by the so-called ARCO DI DRUSO  and thence led to the great reservoir to the south-west of the thermae. It is mentioned as a separate aqueduct (aqua Antoniniana) in Not. app.; Pol. Silv. 545.

The supply was increased by Diocletian, from whom it took the name forma Iovia. The conduit was restored by Hadrian I, Sergius II and Nicolas I. And the name forma Iovia is found in documents of the tenth century relating to the territory of Tivoli, must be the aqua Alexandrina.
 
1 - 52 AQUA APPIA.
The first Roman aqueduct, constructed in 3B.C. by Appius Claudius Caecus 1 and C. Plautius, who acquired the cognomen Venox for having found the springs.

The intake is described by Frontinus as being in agro Lucullano, 780 paces to the left of the via Praenestina,  between the seventh and eighth miles but the springs have never been satisfactorily identified. The supply was 1825 quinariae, or 75,737 cubic metres in 24 hours. The channel was almost entirely subterranean, 11,190 paces in length, to theSALINAE  of which only 60 paces near the porta Capena were carried on substructions and on arches. Near SPES VETUS  it was joined ad Gemellos by a branch named Augusta because constructed by Augustus, the springs of which were 980 paces to the left of the sixth mile of the via Praenestina, near the via Collatina; the channel of this branch was 6380 paces long, and a piece of its channel (?) is described in BC 1912. From the porta Capena the aqueduct ran underground, and remains of its channel were found in 1677 and in 1887 between the Aventinus minor and the Aventinus maior on the south-east of the Via di Porta S. Paolo.

Passing under the Aventine, it ended at the bottom of the clivus Publicius near the porta Trigemina. In level it was the lowest of all the aqueducts. It was repaired by Q. Marcius Rex in 144-140 B.C., and by Augustus in 11-4 B.C. It may be the aqua subtus montem Aventinum currens of Eins. for aqua Tocia. see AQUA MARCIA. 
 
1 - 53 AQUA ATTICA.
An aqueduct mentioned in Not. app.; Pol. Silv. 545 (Anena). As both the Anio Vetus and Novus are omitted in the list, it is probable that this is a corruption, especially as we have no other knowledge of an aqua Annia; and the same applies to the AQUA ATTICA, which is also found in the list.
 
1 - 54 AQUA AUGUSTA.
May refer to the aqua Alsietina, or to the fons Augustae of the aqua Marcia. 
 
1 - 55 AQUA AURELIA.
Quite unexplained, and the name may be interpolated from the list of roads 
 
1 - 56 AQUA CAERULEA. (AQUA CLAUDIA).
An aqueduct which was begun by Caligula in 38 A.D., and completed by Claudius in 52, who dedicated it on 1st August. After being in use for only ten years, the supply failed, and was interrupted for nine years, until Vespasian restored it in 7and ten years later Titus had to repair it once more. On 3rd July, 88, a tunnel under the mons Aeflanus, near Tibur, was completed. We have no records of other restorations, except from the study of the remains themselves, which show that a good deal of repairing was done in the second and third centuries.

Its main springs, the Caeruleus and Curtius, were situated 300 paces to the left of the thirty-eighth milestone of the via Sublacensis, and thus only 100 paces from those of the AQUA MARCIA .

The length of its channel is given in the inscription on the porta Maior as 45 miles, while Frontinus gives it as 1 mile 406 paces more, which is probably to be accounted for by his measuring up as far as the fons Albudinus, which was added between the time of Claudius and his own. The fons Augustae (see AQUA MARCIA) was also turned into the aqua Claudia when the Marcia was full; but sometimes even the Claudia could not carry it, and it ran to waste. Pliny's figure (40 miles) is only approximate. Its springs are slightly further up the Anio valley than those of the Marcia, but belong to the same group. Its volume at the springs was 4607 quinariae, or 191,190 cubic metres in 24 hours. Its course outside the city cannot be dealt with here. Directly after its piscina, near the seventh mile of the via Latina, it finally emerged on to arches, which increase in height as the ground falls towards the city; they carried also the channel of the ANIO NOVUS , the highest of all the aqueducts, and both channels still pass over the via Labicana and via Praenestina by a great monumental arch, which later became the PORTA MAIOR .

From the porta Maior the ARCUS CAELIMONTANI  diverged to the left and conveyed a portion of its supply across the Caelian to the Palatine, the Aventine,  and the Transtiberine region. That this branch also supplied the first region is clear from CIL vi. 3866 =31963, which mentions a castellum situated in it. The main aqueduct ran on to the terminal piscina post hortos Pallantianos ; it must also have supplied the higher parts of the city, the Esquiline, Viminal and Quirinal, which, as Pliny says, its height enabled it to do. See references under Anio Novus.

The forma Claudiana is mentioned in Eins. Forma Claudia is found as one of the boundaries of a vineyard near Porta Maggiore in a document of 1066 
 
1 - 57 AQUA CERNENS.
Only mentioned in Not. (Reg. VIII), and generally emended into fervens, pendens or cernua, i.e. ' the tumbling water.'
 
1 - 58 AQUA CIMINIA. (AQUA AURELIA).
Is quite unexplained, and the name may be interpolated from the list of roads.
 
1 - 59 AQUA CLAUDIA.
An aqueduct which was begun by Caligula in 38 A.D., and completed by Claudius in 52, who dedicated it on 1st August. After being in use for only ten years, the supply failed, and was interrupted for nine years, until Vespasian restored it in 7and ten years later Titus had to repair it once more. On 3rd July, 88, a tunnel under the mons Aeflanus, near Tibur, was completed. We have no records of other restorations, except from the study of the remains themselves, which show that a good deal of repairing was done in the second and third centuries.

Its main springs, the Caeruleus and Curtius, were situated 300 paces to the left of the thirty-eighth milestone of the via Sublacensis, and thus only 100 paces from those of the AQUA MARCIA .

The length of its channel is given in the inscription on the porta Maior as 45 miles, while Frontinus gives it as 1 mile 406 paces more, which is probably to be accounted for by his measuring up as far as the fons Albudinus, which was added between the time of Claudius and his own. The fons Augustae (see AQUA MARCIA) was also turned into the aqua Claudia when the Marcia was full; but sometimes even the Claudia could not carry it, and it ran to waste (Frontinus ii. 72). Pliny's figure (40 miles) is only approximate. Its springs are slightly further up the Anio valley than those of the Marcia, but belong to the same group. Its volume at the springs was 4607 quinariae, or 191,190 cubic metres in 24 hours. Its course outside the city cannot be dealt with here. Directly after its piscina, near the seventh mile of the via Latina, it finally emerged on to arches, which increase in height as the ground falls towards the city; they carried also the channel of the ANIO NOVUS , the highest of all the aqueducts, and both channels still pass over the via Labicana and via Praenestina by a great monumental arch, which later became the PORTA MAIOR .

From the porta Maior the ARCUS CAELIMONTANI  diverged to the left and conveyed a portion of its supply across the Caelian to the Palatine, the Aventine, 2 and the Transtiberine region. That this branch also supplied the first region is clear from CIL vi. 3866 =31963, which mentions a castellum situated in it. The main aqueduct ran on to the terminal piscina post hortos Pallantianos ; it must also have supplied the higher parts of the city, the Esquiline, Viminal and Quirinal, which, as Pliny says, its height enabled it to do. See references under Anio Novus, and also Mel. 1906.

The forma Claudiana is mentioned in Eins. 7. 18, (where the actual aqueduct is referred to; see also AQUA IULIA, ARCUS NERONIANI). Forma Claudia is found as one of the boundaries of a vineyard near Porta Maggiore in a document of 1066. 
 
1 - 60 AQUA CONCLUSA.
Only mentioned in one inscription as a locality on the Esquiline, which doubtless took its name from a tank of one of the aqueducts.
 
1 - 61 AQUA DAMNATA.
Is not otherwise known; it may be identical with AQUA DOTRACIANA; see Jord. i. I. 480; ii. 225; LA 325; RE iv. 2059. It is certainly not identical with the aqua Crabra (Frontinus, de aquis i. 9); see AQUA IULIA.
 
1 - 62 AQUA DRUSIA.
(anon. ap. Mommsen, Chron. min. i. 546) is identified by some with the specus Octavianus of the Anio Vetus which passed, it is thought, over the ARCUS DRUSI; or it may be identical with the aqua Damnata 
 
1 - 63 AQUA HERCULEA.  
Is the rivus Herculaneus of the AQUA MARCIA , not to be confused with the branch of the Anio Novus which bears the same name. Pliny is probably in error in connecting a rivus Herculaneus with the aqua Virgo.
 
1 - 64 AQUA IOVIA. (AQUA MARCIA.)
Known only in name.
 
1 - 65 AQUA IULIA.
An aqueduct constructed by Agrippa in 33 B.C. and repaired by Augustus in 11-4 B.C.

The springs of the aqua Iulia are situated about half a mile above the abbey of Grottaferrata. Frontinus says that they were 2 miles to the right of the twelfth mile of the via Latina, but this is too far. The length is given as 15,4261 paces. The supply was 1206 quinariae, or 50,043 cubic metres in 24 hours. (162 quinariae more were received from the Claudia; and 190 given to the Tepula.) Several cippi are known, all of the time of Augustus.

No. 302 has been found near the springs and 281 not far below the abbey; while others have come to light at Capannelle near the seventh mile of the via Latina, before the channel begins to run above ground upon the arches of the Marcia.

The whole of this group belongs to the restoration of 11-4 B.C. But another cippus has been found, also above the abbey, bearing the number 2. It dates from A.D., and must belong to another restoration by Augustus, of which we have no other record.

From the point of its emergence the aqua Iulia runs, above the aqua Tepula, upon the arches of the AQUA MARCIA , and the main channel goes to its terminal castellum. But a branch ran to the NYMPHAEUM ALEXANDRI  of which some arches still remain in the Piazza Guglielmo Pepe.

Frontinus tells us that before the construction of the aqua Claudia, the Marcia and Iulia supplied the Caelian and the Aventine; in his own time a part of the Marcia was diverted at Spes Vetus and delivered to the reservoirs of the former hill.

The water from the springs of the aqua Iulia is now brought into Rome by the channel called the Marrana Mariana, but was always used mainly for mills and for irrigation.
 
1 - 66 AQUA MARCIA.
Constructed in 144-140 B.C. by Q. Marcius Rex, the water being brought to the Capitol in the latter year. He had been commissioned by the senate to repair the Appia and Anio. The total cost was 180,000,000 sesterces or £1,800,000 sterling.

Two arches of this aqueduct may be represented on a coin of C. Marcius Censorinus (circa 87 B.C.), and five arches on coins of L. Marcius Philippus.

It was repaired by Agrippa in 33 B.C. and again by Augustus, with the rest of the aqueducts, between and 4 B.C. in the inscription of the latter year on the monumental arch by which it was carried over the via Tiburtina, later incorporated in the Aurelian wall as part of the PORTA TIBURTINA.

Numerous cippi belonging to this restoration; add 509 (unpublished) 803 and 8have been found, including the 1215th from Rome, which stood only about 3.5 kilometres from the springs, and about 86.6 from Rome. This corresponds fairly closely with Frontinus' measurement of 61,7101 paces (91.4 kilometres) : whereas the distance from the springs by road was 38 miles along the via Sublacensis, from which they lay 200 paces to the left, or 3 miles to the right of the thirty-sixth milestone of the via Valeria. Augustus also added another spring, the aqua Augusta, which lay 800 paces further up (see AQUA CLAUDIA), which doubled the volume of the aqueduct. The supply at the springs was 4690 quinariae, or 194,635 cubic metres in 24 hours.

The same group of springs are still in use for the modern water supply of Rome, and are now, as then, famous for coldness and purity; though, owing to the fact that the floor of the Anio valley has risen since Roman times, it is impossible to identify them exactly.

Nero outraged public opinion by bathing in its springs: but the aqueduct itself seems to have yielded but little to the city in his day, owing to the depredations of private persons, and a further restoration was carried out by Titus in 79 A.D.: there is evidence of repairs by Hadrian; and others were probably made by Septimius Severus in 196 A.D.; while in 212-3 Caracalla cleared the springs, made some new tunnels, and added another spring, the fons Antoninianus, in connection no doubt with the construction of the branch to his thermae.

The aqua Marcia was joined by the AQUA TEPULA  and the AQUA IULIA  before the point where it emerged from its underground course, near the sixth mile of the via Latina; and their channels were carried above it on the same arches, and are to be seen in section in the Aurelian wall, just to the right of the PORTA MAIOR . From this point they have been made use of by it as far as the PORTA TIBURTINA, soon after which they begin to run underground once more, and reach their terminal castellum just inside the porta Collina, at the north angle of the thermae Diocletiani.

For all this stretch there were cippi of Augustus bearing the names of the three aqueducts.

The regions served by the main channel of the aqua Marcia were in the neighbourhood of the castellum; numerous lead pipes were also found near the porta Viminalis, which served for its distribution. It also ran to the Quirinal see DOMUS MARTIALIS).

The water was brought to the Capitol by Marcius himself in 140,  and where it issued forth must have stood his statue mentioned in the diploma of Nero of 64 A.D. the last word makes it unlikely that Q. Marcius Q. f. Rex Cos. is the base in question.

The rivus Herculaneus diverged from the aqua Marcia is entirely wrong in associating it with the aqua Virgo) post hortos Pallantianos; the castellum is incorporated in the Aurelian wall, in the fifth tower south of the porta S. Lorenzo and ran across the Caelian, though at too low a level to supply it. For traces of it and especially of a conduit formed of solid stone blocks with a circular orifice through them, which may have belonged to it), to its terminal castellum over the PORTA CAPENA , which was therefore called madida.

Hulsen attributes a cippus of Augustus, found near the Lateran, bearing the name Marcia and the number 3 to this aqueduct: but there is another hypothesis admissible in regard to it. Before the construction of the aqua Claudia, so Frontinus tells us, the Caelian and Aventine were supplied by the Marcia and Iulia; and it is quite possible that the cippus, and both the ARCUS DOLABELLAE ET SILANI  and the ARCUS LENTULI ET CRISPINI  belonged to this conduit. But afterwards these hills only received water from the Claudia by the ARCUS NERONIANI  until Trajan took the Marcia amplo opere to the Aventine It appears as AQUA HERCULEA  in Not. app. and Pol. Silv. 545. This conduit may be the forma of Eins. II.

Another branch, the starting-point of which is uncertain, though it may have been near the third mile of the via Latina, was constructed by Caracalla to supply his thermae . It crossed the via Appia by the so-called ARCO DI DRUSO  and thence led to the great reservoir to the south-west of the thermae. It is mentioned as a separate aqueduct (aqua Antoniniana) in Not. app.; Pol. Silv. 545.

The supply was increased by Diocletian, from whom it took the name forma Iovia. The conduit was restored by Hadrian I, Sergius II and Nicolas I. And the name forma Iovia is found in documents of the tenth century relating to the territory of Tivoli, must be the aqua Alexandrina. 
 
1 - 67 AQUA MERCURII.
A spring near the porta Capena which has been recognised in the garden of S. Gregorio, below the Villa Mattei. A dedication to the springs and nymphs which was found not far off.
 
1 - 68 AQUA PINCIANA.
known only from a waterpipe with the inscription., which was found near the porta Salaria in the villa Verospi. It probably conveyed water to the DOMUS PINCIANA .
 
1 - 69 AQUA SALLUSTIANA.
the modern name of a stream which rose between the Quirinal and the Pincio in the district of the horti Sallustiani, crossed the via Lata near the Piazza Colonna, and then turned southward to the Pantheon, where, near theCAPRAE PALUS , according to one view, it joined the PETRONIA AMNIS with which it has by some been identified
 
1 - 70 AQUA SEVERIANA.
mentioned only in Not. app. and Pol. Silv. 545; not the Alexandrina, which occurs separately. The reference is uncertain.
 
1 - 71 AQUA TEPULA.
An aqueduct constructed in 125 B.C. Pliny wrongly says that it was repaired by Q. Marcius Rex; Frontinus,. Its springs were two miles to the right of the tenth mile of the via Latina, where a tepid spring, the Acqua Preziosa, still exists; but no remains of its original channel have ever been found. In 33 B.C. Agrippa mixed its water with that of the aqua Iulia; and from that time onwards its channel entered the city on the arches of the AQUA MARCIA . In Frontinus' time its intake was considered as beginning from the reservoir of the aqua Iulia, where it received 190 quinariae, then 92 from the Marcia, and 163 from the Anio Novus at the horti Epaphroditiani, making 445 quinariae in all, or 18,467 cubic metres in 24 hours.
 
1 - 72 AQUA TRAIANA.
* an aqueduct built by Trajan, which drew its supply from springs at the north-west corner of the Lake of Bracciano. There are scanty traces of the ancient channel, but they have mostly been concealed by the reconstruction of the aqueduct by Paul V in 1605. An inscribed cippus of 109 A.D. was found some miles from Rome; while another with the inscription destroyed has been identified. A large castellum with many lead pipes radiating from it was found in the Vigna Lais on the via Aurelia (LA 461-463, but the only ones quite certainly found here are doubtful.

The channel has recently been found in the construction of the American Academy, while in 1887 some of the mills for which it supplied the motive power were found.

For its terminal castellum, see Cohen, Trai., and for a branch from it to an establishment for pisciculture, see NS 1924.

The aqueduct was cut by Vitiges in 537 and repaired by Belisarius. For repairs in the seventh and eighth centuries. 
 
1 - 73 AQUA VIRGO.
An aqueduct completed by Agrippa on 9th June B.C. The springs were situated at the eighth mile of the via Collatina, two miles to the left of the eighth mile of the via Praenestina, in agro Lucullano, and produced 2504 quinariae or 103,9cubic metres in 24 hours. The subterranean course was 12,865 paces long, and 540 paces were carried on substructions. A girl is said to have shown the springs to some soldiers, hence the name; the incident was recorded by a painting in a chapel near the springs. It was the lowest of all the aqueducts except the Appia and the Alsietina.

It ran almost entirely underground, by a conduit which is still in use, until it reached the HORTI LUCULLANI. on the Pincian, below which it had a settling tank, added after the time of Frontinus.

The cippi, erected by Tiberius (36-37 A.D.) and Claudius (44-45 A.D.） only ran as far as this point, two bearing the number 1 having been found in the Villa Medici. From this point it ran southward along the side of the hill, and near the Via Capo le Case turned south-west and began to run on arches for 700 paces. The arch in the modern via del Nazzareno, by which the aqueduct was carried over a branch street from the via Lata (from which the church of S. Maria in Via takes its name, see HCh 375), records its restoration by Claudius in 46 after the damage caused by the AMPHITHEATRUM CALIGULAE . It passed east of the CAMPUS AGRIPPAE  and then turned westward (see VICUS CAPRALICUS).

It crossed the via Lata by the ARCUS CLAUDII (  and its arches ended, after passing along the north facade of the Saepta, near the north-west angle of the church of S. Ignazio, under the facade of which its arches were found; and here was its terminal castellum. Like the Marcia, its supply was largely diverted to private uses in the time of Nero. A restoration by Constantine is recorded in an inscription found in the Via Nazionale, obviously nowhere near its original position.

The forma Virginis is frequently mentioned in documents of the eighth to tenth centuries. It was repaired by Hadrian I; cf. also a bull of 955, which speaks of the arcus Claudii ( as arcora. In 1453 Nicholas V restored it, and brought the water as far as the Trevi fountain, where its present termination is in the fine fountain of Niccolo Salvi (174. It was repaired by Sixtus IV, but in 1570 it was thoroughly rebuilt by Pius V. His successors, and especially Gregory XIII, built many fountains which were supplied by it. Its low level rendered it impossible for it to supply any part of the higher quarters of Rome.
 
1 - 74 AQUAEDUCTIUM
the name, inscribed in large letters on a fragment (45) of the Marble Plan, that belongs to the group of structures, probably fountains and nymphaea, surrounding the end of the AQUA CLAUDIA  close to the precinct of the temple of Claudius on the Caelian 
 
1 - 75 AQUAE PENSILES. (AQUA CERNENS).
only mentioned in Not. (Reg. VIII), and generally emended into fervens (Jord. i. 2. 47, pendens (Mitt. 1896, 223; but the identification with Aquae pensiles, which was at Puteoli, must be given up; see Rev. Arch. 1913, ii. 253 sqq.; PBS vii. 58) or cernua (Richter, 183, 388), i.e. ' the tumbling water.'
 
1 - 76 AQUILENSES.
found only in one inscription, and probably designating those who lived on the vicus Longi Aquilae, a street in Region XIV, mentioned only on the Capitoline Base
 
1 - 77 ARA DTIS. (DIS PATER ET PROSERPINA, ARA).
an altar in the extreme north-western part of the campus Martius, the TARENTUM, said to have been found by a Sabine from Eretum, Valesius, who, at the command of an oracle, was seeking water to heal his children of a plague. It was also said to be twenty feet below the surface of the ground. On this altar were offered the sacrifices at the ludi Tarentini, which were afterwards merged with the ludi saeculares. The altar of the time of the empire was discovered in 1886-1887, behind the Palazzo Cesarini, 5 metres below the level of the Corso Vittorio Emanuele. Two blocks of the altar itself, which was 3.40 metres square, were found resting upon a pedestal which was approached by three steps, and a large pulvinus belonging to it was also found. Behind it was a massive wall of tufa and round it a triple wall of peperino. Not far away, in a mediaeval wall, were found large portions of the marble slabs containing the inscriptions that record the celebration of the ludi saeculares by Augustus in B.C., and by Severus in 204 A.D. The altar itself is no longer visible 
 
1 - 78 ARA DOMITII AHENOBARBI. (NEPTUNUS, AEDES, DELUBRUM).
a temple of Neptune in circo Flaminio mentioned on an inscription of the Flavian periods and Tritons, Phorcus and his crew, sea-monsters, etc., was in delubro Cn. Domitii in circo Flaminio. A coin of Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, struck between 42 and 38 B.C., represents a tetrastyle temple with the legend Nept. Cn. Domitius M. f. Imp. This indicates that the temple was vowed at least between 42 and 38, but it may not have been built before 32, when Domitius had been reconciled to Augustus and held the consulship. The group of Scopas he probably brought from Bithynia, his province. The day of dedication of this temple was Ist December. To this temple also have been held to belong the parts of a frieze that were preserved (though this is no proof of their provenance) in the Palazzo Santacroce and are now in Paris and Munich. In style and execution this frieze belongs to the second half of the first century B.C., and it evidently surrounded either an altar or, more probably, a pedestal, in the temple. This pedestal may well have been that on which Domitius placed the Scopas group. Part of the frieze represents a lustratio of the army of the period before Marius, and probably was a memorial of the victory of the great-grandfather of the builder of the temple, who was victorious over the Celts on the Isere in 121 and censor in 115. Remains of substructures and of six columns of a pycnostyle temple, belonging without much doubt to this temple of Neptune, have been found north-west of the Piazza S. Salvatore. It is impossible to determine whether Domitius built an entirely new temple, or restored that which previously existed in circo Flaminio (see ARA NEPTUNI
 
1 - 79 ARAGENTIS IULIAE. (GENS IULIA, ARA).
an altar on the Capitoline, presumably  in the AREA CAPITOLINA . Copies of a number of the diplomata of honourably discharged soldiers, belonging to the years after 71 A.D., state that the originals were fastened to this altar, and it is no doubt this altar that is referred to in a fragment of the Acta Fratrum Arvalium of uncertain date
 
1 - 80 ARA MARMOREA.
known only from two inscriptions that were found near the porta Capena. Its use in these inscriptions shows that it was used to indicate a locality.
 
1 - 81 ARA MAXIMA HERCULIS (HERCULIS INVICTI ARA MAXIMA).
the earliest cult-centre of Hercules in Rome, in the forum Boarium, erected, according to tradition, when Hercules had slain Cacus, and his divinity had been recognised by Evander. The dedication of this altar was ascribed by one form of tradition-probably the earliest-to Evander, by another to Hercules himself, and by a third to the companions whom Hercules left behind in Italy. In the forum Boarium, its site is also described as post ianuas circi Maximi, iuxta circum, and within the line of the Palatine pomerium at one corner. It stood, therefore, in the eastern part of the forum Boarium, near the carceres of the circus, and probably very near to the temple of HERCULES VICTOR, that is, at the north-east corner of the Piazza di Bocca della Verita, north of S. Maria in Cosmedin.

This altar was burned in the fire of Nero, but was restored, and was standing in the fourth century. To the second, third, and fourth centuries belong several inscriptions, dedicated by praetors to Hercules Invictus, which were found near by when the ruins of the round temple, identified with that of HERCULES VICTOR , were destroyed during the pontificate of Sixtus IV, and it is not certain whether these inscriptions belonged to the temple or ara, or both. No traces of the altar itself have ever been found. an unsuccessful attempt to identify it with the early structure under S. Maria in Cosmedin. By Tacitus and Juvenal the altar is called magna instead of maxima.

It would be natural to enclose the altar, and some kind of a sacred precinct may be indicated by certain passages in literature rather than the aedes Herculis Invicti. A statue of Hercules triumphalis in the forum Boarium, ascribed by tradition to Evander and probably referred to by Macrobius and Servius, may have been in this ancient precinct of the ara rather than in the temple. An inscription recently acquired by the Lateran Museum mentions an aedes dedicated to Hercules Invictus Esychianus. Its provenance is unknown, but Hiilsen conjectures that it belonged to a chapel situated in the vicinity of the forum Boarium, in which the cult of Hercules was centred. For a Pompeian painting believed to represent Hercules at the ara Maxima see Mem. Like the first of the two inscriptions cited, it was dedicated to Hercules by Hierus and Asylus, slaves of Tiberius Claudius Livianus, praefectus praetorio under Trajan. The name Esychianus is explained by the fact that the second inscription is a dedication (also to Hercules) by one M. Claudius Hesychus, probably a freedman of Livianus.
 
1 - 82 ARAE INCENDII NERONIS.
Altars erected by Domitian, probably one in each region, to commemorate the great fire of Nero and also incendiorum  arcendorum  causa. These altars were dedicated to Neptune, and copies exist of the inscriptions from three of them. One of these altars is recorded as having been used as building material for S. Peter's in the early sixteenth century. Another stood on the south-west side of the circus at the foot of the slope of the Aventine, within the present limits of the Jewish cemetery, where some remains of the steps were found. A third, rediscovered in 1889, stood in an area paved with travertine on the south side of the Alta Semita, opposite the temple of Quirinus, under the Ministero della Casa Reale, close to the modern church of S. Andrea. The three steps that led up from this area to the higher level of the street have been traced for a distance of 35 metres (and are partially visible in the modern wall). Along the front of the area, close to the lower step, was a row of travertine cippi, 1.40 metres in height, 0.80 by 0.50 in depth and width, and 2.50 apart, of which three were found in situ, two whole and one injured. The altar itself was 2.75 metres back from the cippi, and was built of travertine, with a marble cornice. It was 1.26 metres in height and 3.25 by 6.25 in breadth and length, and stood on a pedestal with two steps 
 
1 - 83 ARA PACIS AUGUSTAE.
An altar erected by the senate in honour of the victorious return of Augustus from Spain and Gaul in B.C., on which the magistrates, priests and Vestals should offer annual sacrifices. The decree of the senate was dated 4th July, B.C. Which of these ceremonies constitutes the setting of the procession represented on the reliefs is doubtful. The altar is represented on coins of Nero, and of Domitian, but is not mentioned elsewhere either in literature or inscriptions.

This altar stood on the west side of the via Flaminia and some distance north of the buildings of Agrippa, on the site of the present Palazzo Peretti Fiano-Almagia at the corner of the Corso and the Via in Lucina. Fragments of the decorative sculpture, found in 1568, are in the Villa Medici, the Vatican, the Uffizi, and the Louvre; others, found in 1859, are in the Museo delle Terme and in Vienna. They were recognised as parts of the same monument by Von Duhn and published in 188Systematic excavations in 1903 under the palazzo brought to light other remains of the monument, both architectural and decorative. The work was not finished, but carried far enough to permit of a reconstruction which is fairly accurate in its main features, although there are still unsolved problems in connection with the arrangement and interpretation of the reliefs. Most of the fragments then found are in the Museo delle Terme, though others still remain on the site.

The altar itself was not found. It stood within an enclosing wall of white marble, about 6 metres high, which formed a rectangle measuring 11.625 metres east and west, and 10.55 north and south. In the middle of the east and west sides were entrances flanked with pilasters, and other pilasters stood at each angle of the enclosure. The inside of the enclosing wall was decorated with a frieze of garlands and ox- skulls above a maeander pattern, beneath which was a panelling of fluted marble. A frieze of flowers and palmettes adorned the outside of the enclosure, and above this, on the north side, were reliefs representing the procession in honour of the goddess, with many figures of the imperial family and the flamines, and, on the south, senators, magistrates and others. On the north side of the east entrance was a group of Honos, Pax and Roma, while on the south was a relief of Tellus, or Italia. The west entrance was flanked on the north by a group of Mars and Faustulus at the Ficus Ruminalis (?) and on the south by Aeneas sacrificing when he found the sow. An ingenious attempt has been made to explain the architectural and decorative scheme of the enclosure as a reproduction in marble of the temporary wooden enclosure of the site and the ceremony of consecration on 4th July, B.C. 13. The reliefs of this altar represent the highest achievement of Roman decorative art that is known to us. For the discussion and interpretation of the monument and its reliefs, see Petersen.
 
1 - 84 ARA PIETATIS AUGUSTAE (PIETAS AUGUSTA, ARA).
An altar voted by the senate in 22 A.D. on the occasion of the severe illness of Livia, but not dedicated until 43. Nothing further is known of it, though it has been conjectured that the five Valle-Medici reliefs formerly thought to have come from the ara Pacis may possibly belong to it
 
1 - 85 ARBOR SANCTA.
a name found only in the Regionary Catalogue in Region II, next to CAPUT AFRICAE . It may be the name of a street.
 
1 - 86 ARCO DI CAMIGLIANO (ISIS, AEDES).
The principal temple of Isis in Rome, situated in the campus Martius, adjoining the temple of Serapis in the same precinct . It is also referred to as fanum, templum, templa, and with the temple of Serapis as Iseum et Serapeum. It stood outside the pomerium in the campus Martius, near the Saepta, and the evidence of fragments of the Marble Plan and sculpture makes it reasonably certain that it was just west of the Saepta, between it and the temple of Minerva, in the space between the Vie del Seminario, S. Ignazio, del Gesa, and the Palazzo Altieri.

In 43 B.C. the triumvirs voted to erect a temple to Isis and Serapis, but it is not known whether this temple was actually built or not. Tibullus and Ovid speak of a temple or temples of Isis as a conspicuous resort of women, especially of prostitutes, a characteristic also of the later temple. On the other hand, repressive measures against Egyptian cults were carried out by Augustus in 28 B.C., by Agrippa in 2and by Tiberius in 9 A.D., who is even said to have destroyed a temple of Isis and thrown her statue into the Tiber. Between the reign of Tiberius and 65 A.D. The cult of Isis had been officially received in Rome, and this temple in the campus Martius, if not built in the previous century, must have been built then, perhaps by Caligula. It was burned in 80 A.D., restored by Domitian, and by Alexander Severus who added to its treasures of art. In 219-220 the statue of Isis in this temple is said to have turned its face inwards, and there are two other references to it in later literature. Certain inscriptions of the empire also refer without doubt to this temple and it is represented on a coin of Vespasian struck to commemorate the fact that Vespasian and Titus spent the night before the celebration of their triumph for the taking of Jerusalem in  this temple. This coin shows the facade of a narrow peribolos with four Corinthian columns and a round pediment containing the figure of Isis on a dog. Inside the peribolos, and entirely detached from it, is the temple proper.

It is probable that the temple of Isis was north of that of Serapis, and that it was long and narrow and stood at one end of a long and narrow enclosure, resembling in form and architecture the forum Transitorium. Six of its columns have been found in situ. It is not clear whether the entrance was on the north, or on the south toward the Serapeum. The two small obelisks, now in the Viale delle Terme and the Piazza della Minerva, and probably that of the Piazza della Rotonda, were found on the site of the Iseum and may have stood in front of it. The obelisk of the Piazza Navona was probably first set up in the precinct (see OBELISCI ISEI CAMPENSIS).

The Serapeum, although it is not mentioned alone, was a separate building of wholly different style, as is shown by fragments of the Marble Plan. Its south end was formed by a large semi-circular apse, about 60 metres in diameter, in the outer wall of which were several small exedrae. The inner side of this apse was adorned with columns, and a colonnade formed its diameter. Immediately north of the apse was a rectangular area, of the same width as the apse, and about 20 metres deep, with an entrance in the middle of the front and on each side. The plan closely resembled that of the' Canopus ' at Hadrian's Villa; for the Arco di Camigliano, probably the eastern entrance to the precinct.

Numerous works of art were gathered together in this precinct, many of which have been recovered, among them the statues of the Tiber (Louvre), the Nile (Vatican), the Ocean (Naples), and the lions in the Vatican. 
 
1 - 87 ARCO DELLA CIAMBELLA (THERMAE AGRIPPAE).

the earliest of the great baths of Rome. According to Cassius Dio Agrippa built a hot-air bath in 25 B.C. at the same time as the PANTHEON ; and at his death in he left to the Roman people, for their free use, a βαλανεῖον. As the AQUA VIRGO , which supplied these baths with water, was not completed until B.C., it is probable that the laconicum was the original part of what afterwards became a complete establishment for bathing, which was then regularly called thermae. Agrippa adorned these baths with works of art, among which are mentioned paintings, and the Apoxyomenos of Lysippus, which was set up in front of them. The hot rooms he is said to have finished with fresco on tiles.

The thermae were burned in 80 A.D., but must have been restored by Titus or Domitian, for they are mentioned by Martial as much frequented. Another restoration was carried out by Hadrian. An inscription  of 344/5 A.D. recording a restoration by Constantius and Constans of 'termas vetustate labefactas' was found near the church of S. Maria in Monterone close' to the west side of the baths of Agrippa, and therefore probably refers to them. They are mentioned in the Regionary Catalogue, by Sid. Apollinaris, and in the sixth century. By the seventh century the destruction of the building was well under way, and that its marble was burned into lime is shown by the name Calcararium, applied to the immediate vicinity somewhat later. They are, however, mentioned as Thermae Commodianae in Eins.

The general plan of these thermae is known from a fragment of the Marble Plan found in 1900, from drawings and plans of the sixteenth century when much of the structure was still standing-three in particular, one of Baldassare Peruzzi, a second of Palladio in the Devonshire collection, and a third of S. Peruzzi; and from the meagre results of excavations. From this evidence it appears that the building of Agrippa was oriented of the north and south on the axis of the Pantheon, and covered an area measuring about 100-120 metres north and south and 80-100 east and same west, extending from the modern Via di Tor Argentina on the west to the east side of the Via dei Cestari, and having its southern limit a little north of the Corso Vittorio Emanuele. Just north of the centre of the building was a circular hall about 25 metres in diameter, belonging to a later reconstruction in a period not earlier than Alexander Severus, with the earliest known example of meridian ribs in its dome, the arco della Ciambella, by which name it was known as early as 1505, shown in sketches of the seventeenth century when it was still complete. It is now only partially preserved and is visible behind the houses in the Via dell' Arco della Ciambella. It was probably a sort of general assembly hall, the social centre of the baths. The arrangement of the other rooms is uncertain, but the caldarium was probably directly west of the circular hall. On the west side of the thermae was an artificial pool or STAGNUM. The plan is very like that of the larger thermae at Treves, as the restoration by Williams shows.

The original structure of Agrippa was afterwards extended north by Hadrian, and connected with the Pantheon by a series of halls, of which only small sections have been found, except in the case of that directly adjoining the Pantheon. This hall is wrongly called Laconicum by Lanciani, for there are no traces of heating arrangements. Its real purpose is uncertain; Hulsen conjectures that it is to be identified with the library which Julius Africanus erected for the emperor Alexander Severus. But the passage in Oxyrhynchus Papyri which he cites, .though it is certainly ambiguous, would seem to refer rather to the THERMAE ALEXANDRINAE (NERONIANAE), q.v., the which were close by. From the brickstamps cited by Hulsen, it would seem that the hall itself must also belong to the period of Hadrian, as he maintains; and this is borne out by the character of the frieze and cornice. The hall, now cut through by the Via della Palombella, was rectangular in shape, 45 metres long and wide, with an apse 9 metres in diameter in the north wall. Along each of the longer sides stood four columns of pavonazzetto and red granite. Between the first and second and the third and fourth columns on each side were three niches, two rectangular and one semi-circular. Round the hall ran a remarkably well executed frieze and cornice, some of which is in situ. The walls are 1.75 metre thick. The cross-walls between the north wall of this hall and the drum of the Pantheon date from 126 or later, and as they are not connected with either structure but simply abut against them, it is clear that they were intended to serve as buttresses, perhaps in order that a heavy roof might be put over the hall.

For the thermae, see HJ; and especially Hulsen, Die Thermen des Agrippa, Rome 1910, which contains reproductions of the plans cited above as well as others, and a definite discussion of the whole structure.
 
1 - 88 ARCO DI DRUSO.
The name that has been given since the sixteenth century to the arch on the via Appia just inside the Porta S. Sebastiano, perhaps the arcus Recordationis of the Einsiedeln Itinerary, but see ARCUS DRUSI. Only the central part of this arch is now standing, but it was originally triple, or at least with projections on each side, and of somewhat elaborate construction, although never finished. It is built of travertine, which was faced with marble, and on each side of the archway are unfluted columns of Numidian marble with white marble bases and capitals of the Composite order. The archway is 7.21 metres high, 5.34 wide and 5.61 deep. The aqua Antoniniana, the branch of the AQUA MARCIA  built by Caracalla in 211-2A.D., ran over this arch, but the brick-faced concrete that is now visible on top of the arch seems to belong to a period later than that of Caracalla. This arch cannot be identified with that of Drusus, both because it is so far from the VICUS DRUSIANUS , and because its construction belongs to a later period, but it may possibly be the arch of Trajan in Region I
 

1 - 89 ARCO DI LATRONE (BASILICA CONSTANTINI).

Constantiniana viously occupied, in part at least, by the horrea Piperataria of Domitian. It was the last of the Roman basilicas, which it resembled less than it did the halls of the great thermae. Its proper designation appears to have fallen into disuse at an early period, for in the sixth century it was called templum Romae;  and in the seventh when Pope Honorius took its bronze tiles for the roof of St. Peter's. The south aisle and the roof of the nave probably collapsed in the earth- quake of Leo IV in 847; see VENUS ET ROMA, TEMPLUM).

The basilica stood on an enormous rectangular platform of concrete 100 metres long and 65 wide, and consisted of a central nave 80 metres long, 25 wide and 35 high, with side aisles metres wide and 24.50 high. These aisles were divided into three sections by walls pierced by wide arches and ending on each side of the nave in massive piers. In front of these piers and at the corners of the nave were eight monolithic columns of marble, all of which have been destroyed except one that was removed by Paul V in 16to the Piazza di S. Maria Maggiore, where it now stands. The height of the shaft of this column is 14.50 metres, and it is 5.40 metres in circumference. On the piers rested the roof of the nave, divided into three bays with quadripartite groining. The ceiling was decorated with deep hexagonal and octagonal coffers. For the entasis see Mem.

The facade of the basilica as built by Maxentius was towards the east, and at this end was a corridor or vestibule, 8 metres deep, which extended across the whole width of the building. From this vestibule there were five entrances into the basilica, three into the nave, and one into each of the aisles. A flight of steps led up from the street in front to the vestibule, which was adorned with columns. At the west end of the nave was a semicircular apse, 20 metres in diameter, in which the fragments of the colossal statue of Constantine, now in the Palazzo dei Conservatori, were probably found in 1487. The statue probably sat in this apse, which would have been its natural place.

Constantine spoilt the original conception of the building when he constructed a second entrance from the Sacra via in the middle of the south side, where he built a porch with porphyry columns (?) and a long flight of steps (Ill. 10). Opposite this new entrance he constructed a second semicircular apse in the north wall, as large as that at the west end of the nave but lower. Thenceforth the basilica produced the same impression-of three parallel halls-whether one entered it from the south or from the east.

Besides the foundation, which has been almost wholly uncovered, the north wall and the north aisle-or, as it rather appears, the north sections of the three halls regarded as running north and south-are still standing. The semicircular apse in the central hall contains sixteen rectangular niches in two rows, with a pedestal or suggestus in the centre. A marble seat with steps runs round the apse, which was separated from the rest of the hall by two columns and marble screens, thus forming a sort of tribunal. Nothing of the nave remains except the bases of the great piers. The core of the porch and of the flight of steps leading down to the Sacra via is still visible, and several fragments of the porphyry columns have been set up, but not in situ. Of the pavement of slabs of marble considerable fragments have been found.

The material employed in this basilica was brick-faced concrete, and the great thickness of the walls-6 metres at one point at the west end-and the enormous height and span of the vaulted roof made it one of the most remarkable buildings in Rome. The magnificence of its interior decoration was commensurate with its size and imposing character. It was modelled on the central halls of the great thermae.

The north-west corner of the basilica joined the wall of the forum of Vespasian, thereby cutting off the previously existing thoroughfare between the forum Romanum and the district of the Carinae. Maxentius therefore constructed a passage-way under the north-west corner of the building, about 4 metres wide and long. In the Middle Ages this was known as the Arco di Latrone  from its dangerous associations
 
1 - 90 ARCO DEI PANTANI.
One of the original arched gateways in the wall of the forum of Augustus, through which the Via Bonella passes (see FORUM AUGUSTUM).
 
1 - 91 ARCO DI PORTOGALLO.
An arch over the via Lata close to the ara Pacis, which is often called ARCUS HADRIANI, because of two reliefs of the Hadrianic period that adorned it and are now in the Palazzo dei Conservatori. This arch was removed in 1662 by Alexander VII in order that the Corso might be widened. It was known earlier as the arcus Octaviani, but from the sixteenth century it was called Arco di Portogallo because it adjoined the residence of the Portuguese ambassador, the Palazzo Peretti-Fiano. The foundation of one of the piers has been found beneath the present palace, 2.36 metres below the level of the Corso. Extant drawings of this arch, dating from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, show a single archway flanked on each side with two columns, and surrounded with a cornice. The architecture seems to belong to a period later than that of Hadrian, and it is quite possible that the arch itself is of considerably later date-being in fact sometimes assigned de- finitely to Marcus Aurelius-and that it was decorated with sculpture from earlier monuments, as was the case with the arch of Constantine. Indeed, Hulsen believes it to belong to the fourth or fifth century, and to have been built with fragments of earlier buildings. One of the sides was demolished in the twelfth century, when a fragment of the cornice was removed to S. Maria in Trastevere. This is against its having been a' mediaeval pasticcio ' 
 
1 - 92 ARCUS.
Link broken.
 
1 - 93 ARCUS ARCADII HONORII ET THEODOSII.
a marble arch erected by the senate after the victory of Stilicho at Pollentia in 405 A.D. in honour of the three emperors and to commemorate their victories over the Goths. It stood at the west end of the PONS NERONIANUS  and probably spanned its approach. In the Mirabilia it is called arcus aureus Alexandri, and erroneously located near the church of S. Celso instead of S. Urso. It was standing in the fifteenth century, but had been stripped of its marble facing.
 

1 - 94 ARCUS ARGENTARIORUM (ARCUS SEPTIMII SEVERI).
The arch erected in 203 A.D. in honour of Severus and his sons Geta and Caracalla, at the north-west corner of the forum, in front of the temple of Concord. This information is contained in the dedicatory inscription on both sides of the attic of the arch, which is still standing. The original bronze letters of this inscription have disappeared, but their matrices remain, and it can be seen that the name of Geta was chiselled away after his murder, and the space filled up with additional titles of Severus and Caracalla. The arch is triple and built of Pentelic marble on a foundation of travertine, which was concealed by the flight of steps that formed the approach to the arch from the forum side. Later, probably in the fourth century, the level in front of the arch on this side was lowered, the flight of steps lengthened, and the top of the foundation cut away to provide for them. The exposed corners of the foundation were then faced with marble. The arch was never traversed by a road until mediaeval times.

The arch is 23 metres high, 25 wide and 11.85 deep, the central archway being metres high and 7 wide, and the side archways 7.80 high and 3 wide. Between the central and side arches are vaulted passages with coffered ceilings. On each face of the arch are four fluted columns with Composite capitals, 8.78 metres high and 0.90 metre in diameter at the base. These columns stand free from the arch on projecting pedestals, and behind them are corresponding pilasters. An entablature surrounds the arch, and above it is the lofty attic, 5.60 metres in height, within which are four chambers.

Over the side arches are narrow bands of reliefs representing the triumphs of Rome over conquered peoples, and above them four large reliefs which represent the campaigns of Severus in the East. In the spandrels of the central arch are winged Victories, and in those of the side arches, river gods. On the keystones of the central arch are reliefs of Mars Victor, and on the pedestals of the columns, Roman soldiers driving captives before them. Coins of Severus and Caracalla show that on the top of the arch was a six- or eight-horse chariot, in which stood Severus and Victory, escorted by Geta and Caracalla, and on the ends four equestrian figures; but of these statues no traces have been found.

The excellent preservation of this monument is due in part to the fact that in the Middle Ages its southern half belonged to the neighbouring church of SS. Sergio e Bacco, and its northern half was fortified. The erection of this arch destroyed the symmetry of this end of the forum.
 
1 - 95 ARCUS AUGUSTI.

Two arches erected in honour of Augustus in the forum, one in 29 B.C., to commemorate the victory at Actium, the other in B.C., on account of the return of the standards captured by the Parthians at Carrhae. It is explicitly stated that the latter stood iuxta aedem divi Iulii. These arches are represented on coins, that of 29 B.C. on a denarius of Vinicius, and that of B.C. on coins of 18-B.C. The earlier coins represent a triple arch, surmounted with a quadriga in the centre and barbarians on the sides. The archways are of equal height, and the middle piers double the width of the outer. The later coins also represent a triple arch, with quadriga and figures of barbarians, and piers of the same relative width as the other, but the central portion is much higher than the sides.

The foundations of one of these arches exist between the temple of Julius and that of Castor, being laid on the short axis of the former temple and close to it. They consist of travertine blocks on concrete beds, and those of three of the four piers are in situ. The middle piers were 2.95 metres wide, and those of the sides 1.35, corresponding to the representation on the coins. The depth of the middle piers is also greater than that of the side piers. The width of the central archway was 4.05 metres and that of those at the side arches 2.55, the breadth of the whole structure being 17.75 metres. The pavement in the central passage is still partially preserved, and some of the marble fragments of the arch have been set in modern brick beds on the travertine foundations, which themselves rest on the pavement of an earlier street.

If the evidence cited above were all we had, we should identify these ruins with the arch of B.C., on the strength of the scholiast's iuxta aedem divi Iulii, but an inscription, cut in a block of Parian marble 2.67 metres long, was found in 1546/7 close to these foundations, which records a dedication to Augustus in 29 B.C. This inscription may have belonged to this arch, although it cannot have been the principal inscription on the attic. No trace of a second arch of Augustus in the forum has thus far been discovered (see also ARCUS PIETATIS), and the identification of the existing ruins is therefore still uncertain.

Fiechter and Hulsen attribute to this arch the Doric fragments found near the Regia in 1872. A similar fragment was seen at SS. Quattro Coronati. It is noted by Hulsen that, though an arch was voted by the senate in 29 B.C., it is nowhere stated that it was consecrated. He attributes all the coins to the same arch, and follows a conjecture of Dressel's, by which the inscription is inferred from the legends on the coins of 18-B.C. He points out, further, that the inscription generally attributed to the arch is of the wrong shape and size; for a criticism of the restoration proposed, see Zeitschr. f. Gesch.

A single arch representing the same event is shown on other coins.
 
1 - 96 ARA PIETATIS AUGUSTAE (PIETAS AUGUSTA, ARA).

ARBOR SANCTA.

a name found only in the Regionary Catalogue in Region II, next to CAPUT AFRICAE . It may be the name of a street.
 

1 - 97 ARCO DI CAMIGLIANO.

see ISIS, AEDES.
 
1 - 98 ARCO DELLA CIAMBELLA.
see THERMAE AGRIPPAE.
 
1 - 99
 
 
1 - 100
 
1 - 101
 
 
1 - 102
 
 
1 - 103 Arcus.
Missing.
 
1 - 104 ARCUS ARCADII HONORII ET THEODOSII.
A marble arch erected by the senate after the victory of Stilicho at Pollentia in 405 A.D. in honour of the three emperors and to commemorate their victories over the Goths. It stood at the west end of the PONS NERONIANUS (q.v.) and probably spanned its approach. In the Mirabilia it is called arcus aureus Alexandri, and erroneously located near the church of S. Celso instead of S. Urso. It was standing in the fifteenth century, but had been stripped of its marble facing.
 
1 - 105 ARCUS ARGENTARIORUM.
See ARCUS SEPTIMII SEVERI (in foro Boario).
 
1 - 106 ARCUS AUGUSTI.
Two arches erected in honour of Augustus in the forum, one in 29 B.C., to commemorate the victory at Actium, the other in B.C., on account of the return of the standards captured by the Parthians at Carrhae. It is explicitly stated that the latter stood iuxta aedem divi Iulii. These arches are represented on coins, that of 29 B.C. on a denarius of Vinicius, and that of B.C. on coins of 18-B.C.. The earlier coins represent a triple arch, surmounted with a quadriga in the centre and barbarians on the sides. The archways are of equal height, and the middle piers double the width of the outer. The later coins also represent a triple arch, with quadriga and figures of barbarians, and piers of the same relative width as the other, but the central portion is much higher than the sides.

The foundations of one of these arches exist between the temple of Julius and that of Castor, being laid on the short axis of the former temple and close to it. They consist of travertine blocks on concrete beds, and those of three of the four piers are in situ. The middle piers were 2.95 metres wide, and those of the sides 1.35, corresponding to the representation on the coins. The depth of the middle piers is also greater than that of the side piers. The width of the central archway was 4.05 metres and that of those at the side arches 2.55, the breadth of the whole structure being 17.75 metres. The pavement in the central passage is still partially preserved, and some of the marble fragments of the arch have been set in modern brick beds on the travertine foundations, which themselves rest on the pavement of an earlier street.

If the evidence cited above were all we had, we should identify these ruins with the arch of B.C., on the strength of the scholiast's iuxta aedem divi Iulii, but an inscription, cut in a block of Parian marble 2.67 metres long, was found in 1546/7 close to these foundations, which records a dedication to Augustus in 29 B.C. This inscription may have belonged to this arch, although it cannot have been the principal inscription on the attic. No trace of a second arch of Augustus in the forum has thus far been discovered (see also ARCUS PIETATIS), and the identification of the existing ruins is therefore still uncertain.

Fiechter and Hulsen attribute to this arch the Doric fragments found near the Regia in 1872. A similar fragment was seen at SS. Quattro Coronati. It is noted by Hulsen that, though an arch was voted by the senate in 29 B.C., it is nowhere stated that it was consecrated. He attributes all the coins to the same arch, and follows a conjecture of Dressel's, by which the inscription is inferred from the legends on the coins of 18-B.C.: He points out, further, that the inscription generally attributed to the arch is of the wrong shape and size; for a criticism of the restoration proposed.
 
1 - 107 ARCUS M. AURELII.
An arch erected in commemoration of the victory of Marcus Aurelius over the Germans and Sarmatians in 176 A.D., according to an inscription that was seen and copied by the compiler of the Einsiedeln Itinerary. This arch probably spanned the CLIVUS ARGENTARIUS (q.v.) at its junction with the via Lata, and is that referred to in a forged bull  of John III as arcus Argentariorum, and in the Mirabilia as arcus Panis Aurei in Capitolio.
 
1 - 108 ARCUS AUREUS ALEXANDRI.
See ARCUS ARCADII HONORII ET THEODOSII.
 
1 - 109 ARCUS IOHANNIS BASILII or BASILIDIS.
The mediaeval name of the arch of the aqua Claudia over the via Caelimontana, on the site of the ancient porta Caelimontana. It was also called the arcus Formae, and seems to have served as an entrance to the Lateran precinct. It was demolished in 1604.
 
1 - 110 ARCUS CAELIMONTANI.
See ARCUS NERONIANI.
 
1 - 111 ARCUS CLAUDII (I).
One of the arches of the AQUA VIRGO (q.v.), which spanned an ancient street, and was restored in monumental form by Claudius. This arch is still standing, in the court of No. Via del Nazareno, and is probably referred to by Martial iv. 18. as date is 46 A.D.
 
1 - 112 ARCUS CLAUDII (. 
Built by Claudius in 51/52 A.D. in commemoration of his victories in Britain. It also formed part of the aqua Virgo, where this aqueduct crossed the via Lata, just north of the Saepta. It seems to have been in ruins as early as the eighth century, but in 1562, in 164and again in 1869 portions of the structure were found, including part of the principal inscription, inscriptions dedicated to other members of the imperial family, some of the foundations, and fragments of sculpture of which all traces have been lost. On coins issued in 46-47 A.D., as an ' intelligent anticipation' of events, is a representation of an arch erected to commemorate these victories of Claudius, but whether it is this arch of the aqua Virgo is quite uncertain.
 
1 - 113 ARCUS CLAUDII (. 
An arch intended to be erected in honour of Claudius' victories in Germany won by his generals over the Cauchi and the Chatti in 41 A.D. is shown in several of his coins of 41 A.D. and following years. Whether it was actually erected, and if so, where, is uncertain.
 
1 - 114 ARCUS CONSTANTINI.
Erected by the senate in honour of Constantine to commemorate his victory over Maxentius in 3A.D., as the inscription in the attic records. The date of its completion is fixed to 315-3A.D. by the mention of the decennalia in the inscriptions of the side arches; and Grossi-Gondi decides for 3because the consulship is omitted, whereas in 3he held it for the fourth time. It is not mentioned by any of our literary sources. It stands at the beginning of the road which traverses the valley between the Palatine and the Caelian from the Colosseum to the south-east end of the circus Maximus, and which is often (though without warrant) called via Triumphalis. The road did not, however, run through it, and indeed lay at a somewhat lower level, though not so low as to necessitate steps for foot-passengers to pass through. The archways and the space round the arch are paved with travertine. The arch is built of white marble;- it is 21 metres high, 25.70 wide, and 7.40 deep; the central archway is 11.50 high and 6.50 wide, and the two lateral arches are 7.40 metres high and 3.36 wide. Between the archways and at the corners were eight fluted Corinthian columns of giallo antico, one of which has been removed to the Lateran, while the other seven still remain: they were doubtless removed from other buildings. The sculptures with which it is decorated belong to several different periods.

( The two reliefs at the ends of the arch and the two on the jambs of the central archway, representing conflicts between Romans and Dacians, formed part of a continuous frieze, which is supposed to have decorated the enclosure wall of the FORUM TRAIANI (q.v.), and may belong to the period of Domitian, though Sieveking, in Festschrift fur P. Arndt 36, returns to the usual ascription to Trajan.

( The eight statues of Dacians in pavonazzetto (Phrygian) marble standing on the cornice in front of the attic, each above one of the giallo antico columns, doubtless came from the Forum of Trajan, where similar statues have been found. Of those on the arch, one is a reproduction in white marble and the rest have restored heads and hands. Of the original heads in white marble, two are probably in the Vatican.

( The round medallions over the side arches, four on each side, representing an emperor in sacrificial and hunting scenes alternately, have been much discussed. They were attributed to the Templum Gentis Flaviae, or some monument of the Flavian period, and supposed to have been used over again by Claudius Gothicus. But most recent critics have recognised Antinous in some of them, and referred them to the period of Hadrian, while Hulsen makes those without the nimbus earlier to that of Philippus Arabus. It is also suggested that the statue of Apollo represented on them may be taken from the Apollo Actius in the temple on the Palatine.

( The eight rectangular reliefs in the attic. Three other reliefs of the same series  are in the Palazzo dei Conservatori, and belong to an arch erected in 176 A.D. to commemorate the victories of M. Aurelius in the Sarmatian and German wars. They depict the emperor entering Rome, engaging in sacrifice, receiving an address from his soldiers, etc.

To the Constantinian period belong: the reliefs on the pedestals of the eight columns, representing victories, legionaries and captives, the low frieze above the side arches and at the ends, the two round medallions at the ends, representing the setting of the moon and the rising of the sun; the Victories and river-gods in the spandrels, and the eight portrait busts in the lateral passages.

The frieze refers to episodes in the life of Constantine-his exploits under Galerius in Asia, his triumph over the Franks and Alemanni at Treves, his capture of Susa, his victory over Maxentius, his allocutio from the Rostra, and his largitio; and the damage to the heads is attributable to the reaction of Symmachus.

The legionary signs of the Constantinian period represented on the arch have been studied by Monaci.

That the arch was originally dedicated to Domitian, and that after his damnatio memoriae it was deprived of its decorations, but stood in ruins till Constantine converted it to his own uses, has not found general acceptance.

Among the many arguments against it are ( the existence among the marble blocks used in the interior of the attic of a cornice block not earlier than the time of Domitian; ( the fact that the brickwork in the attic is of the time of Constantine.

We may note the use of polychrome marbles and gilding in the arch-besides what have been already mentioned, the employment of porphyry to surround the circular medallions and as a fascia to the main cornice.

The latest article on the subject  shows that the relief of the Haterii cannot be used in support of Frothingham's theory. 'If an arch is represented which stood between the arch of Titus and the Colosseum, it was single, with eight attached columns.' The whole cornice, too, is a mass of patchwork, and is crudely imitated in the entablature above the columns; while the medallions are badly placed.

 
1 - 115 ARCUS DIVI CONSTANTINI.
see JANUS QUADRIFRONS.
 
1 - 116 ARCUS DIOCLETIANI.
see ARCUS NOVUS.
 
1 - 117 ARCUS DOLABELLAE ET SILANI.
On the Caelian, at the north corner of the site of the castra Peregrina, erected in A.D. by the consuls P. Cornelius Dolabella and C. Iulius Silanus. It is of travertine without ornamentation, and is usually supposed to have been built to support a branch of the aqua Marcia (not the rivus Herculaneus), and afterwards to have been used by Nero in his extension of the aqua Claudia, the arcus Neroniani. Corroborative evidence for this view is found in the similar construction and inscription of the ARCUS LENTULI ET CRISPINI  at the foot of the AVENTINE (q.v.).
 
1 - 118 ARCUS DOMITIANI (I).
According to Suetonius (Dom. 1 and Cassius Dio, Domitian erected arches in various parts of the city. The location of none of these is known to us unless a recent theory be true that identifies the arch referred to by Martial with the arcus manus Carneae of the Mirabilia and Ordo Benedicti. This arch was near the Piazza Venezia, and perhaps stood at the junction of the via Lata and the VICUS PALLACINAE (q.v.), since Domitian's arches are usually represented on coins as quadrifrontal. See FORTUNA REDUX, TEMPLUM.
 
1 - 119 ARCUS DOMITIANI (.
An arch, attributed to Domitian by Boni, has been recently discovered on the clivus Palatinus, not far below the state apartments of the domus Augustiana. Nothing is preserved but the concrete foundations of the two piers (which were obviously wide enough to admit of lateral openings), the pavement of the road which passed through the central arch, and some architectural fragments; and it would be natural to suppose it to have been destroyed after his death (cf. EQUUS DOMITIANI). The character of the concrete, however, seems to point to an Augustan date.
 
1 - 120 ARCUS DRUSI.
Erected by the senate some time after 9 B.C. in honour of the elder Drusus. It was of marble, adorned with trophies, and stood on the via Appia, probably a little north of its junction with the via Latina. It seems to have given its name to the VICUS DRUSIANUS (q.v.), and is probably the arcus Recordationis of the Einsiedeln Itinerary. See also AQUA DRUSIA.
 
1 - 121 ARCUS DRUSI.
Erected in honour of the younger Drusus after his death in 23 A.D., if the statement in Tacitus be correct. Possibly it stood at the north end of the Rostra, as the arch of Tiberius stood at the south.
 
1 - 122 ARCUS DRUSI ET GERMANICI.
Two arches erected in A.D. in honour of Drusus and Germanicus on each side of the temple of Mars Ultor in the FORUM AUGUSTUM.
 
1 - 123 ARCUS FABIORUM.
see FORNIX FABIORUM.
 
1 - 124 ARCUS GALLIENI.
Erected on the site of the PORTA ESQUILINA (q.v.) in 262 A.D. by one M. Aurelius Victor, and dedicated to the Emperor Gallienus. It stands in the Via di S. Vito, close to the church of the same name. The existing single arch is of travertine, 8.80 metres high, 7.30 wide, and 3.50 deep. The piers which support it are 1.40 metres wide and 3.50 deep, and outside of them are two pilasters of the same depth, with Corinthian capitals. The entablature is 2 metres high with the dedicatory inscription on the architrave. Beneath the spring of the arch on each side is a simple cornice. A drawing of the fifteenth century shows small side arches, but all traces of them have disappeared.
 
1 - 125 ARCUS GERMANICI.
Erected in honour of Germanicus in A.D., if the statement of Tacitus is correct.
 
1 - 126 ARCUS GORDIANI.
see CASTRA PRAETORIA.
 
1 - 127 ARCUS GRATIANI VALENTINIANI ET THEODOSII.
Built between 379 and 383 A.D. by these three emperors, as the monumental end of their PORTICUS MAXIMAE (q.v.). It stood close to the pons Aelius, and probably spanned its southern approach. It was destroyed in the fourteenth century, but some traces of it were visible in the sixteenth.
 
1 - 128 ARCUS HADRIANI.
see ARCO DI PORTOGALLO.
 
1 - 129 ARCUS AD ISIS.
The name inscribed on the attic of the triple arch that is represented as standing on the east side of the Colosseum on the Haterii relief. This arch is decorated with Egyptian symbols, and a figure of Isis stands in the central archway. It would be natural to locate this arch close to the Colosseum, but the inscription indicates clearly that it was named from its proximity to the temple of Isis (q.v.). It probably spanned the via Labicana near the temple.
 
1 - 130 ARCUS LATRONIS.
see BASILICA CONSTANTINI.
 
1 - 131 ARCUS LENTULI ET CRISPINI.
Between the porta Trigemina and the statio Annonae, erected by Lentulus and Crispinus, the consuls in 2 A.D.. This inscription is precisely like that  of the ARCUS DOLABELLAE ET SILANI (q.v.) except for the names, and the two arches were probably built as part of Augustus' general plan of restoring and enlarging the aqueduct system. Whether this arch belonged to an extension of the Marcia or Appia is, however, uncertain. Flavius Blondus, who saw this arch destroyed about the middle of the fifteenth century, implies that it formed one of several 
 
1 - 132 ARCUS NERONIANI.
A branch of theAQUA CLAUDIA (q.v.) built by Nero from Spes Vetus to the temple of Claudius on the Caelian, a distance of two kilometres. For the greater part of its irregular line remains of it are preserved. Near S. Stefano Rotondo it divided, and one section ran towards the Aventine, ending near the church of S. Prisca. The arches have a span of 7.75 metres and the piers are 2.30 long and 2.thick, the maximum height being metres. The brickwork is very fine and interesting, as Rivoira points out. Skeleton tile ribs are first seen in these arches where the aqueduct crossed streets, the arches were wider and more imposing (see ARCUS BASILIDIS, ARCUS DOLABELLAE ET SILANI). The valley between the Caelian and the Palatine was traversed by an aqueduct, perhaps built by Domitian; with two tiers of arches, which may have carried a syphon. The pipe, 30 cm. in diameter, which is generally associated with the syphon, would not have stood the pressure; while if, as at Lyon, small pipes were used, they might easily have become choked with deposit. Severus reinforced the arches of Nero, including the line of arches across the valley just mentioned. For a branch which crossed the Tiber, see FORNIX AUGUSTI.

The aqueduct is frequently mentioned in the post-classical period. Forma Claudiana in Eins. 8. 17, clearly refers to it, and it was restored by Hadrian I. In a document of 978there is a mention of a domus in qua est oratorium martyrum Cosmae et Damiani quintaRomae regione II iuxta formam Claudia; and this oratory, which is mentioned among the boundaries of S. Erasmo on the Caelian, which lay to the west of S. Stefano Rotondo, is probably the same as S. Cosmae et Damiani ubi dicitur asinum frictum.

Asinus frictus may, like ursus pileatus, be the name of an ancient road, derived from a shop sign. The name is, however, also found in the neighbourhood of Rome on the via Ostiensis.

The church of S. Nicolas de Formis, near S. Stefano Rotondo, took its name from this aqueduct, and so did S. Daniel and SS. Sergius and Bacchus, near the Lateran, and S. Thomas de Formis close to the ARCUS DOLABELLAE ET SILANI.

The arcus Formae mentioned in the Ordo Benedicti is no doubt the ARCUS IOHANNIS BASILII.
 
1 - 133 ARCUS NERONIS.
Erected between 58 and 62 A.D. by Nero to commemorate the victories of Corbulo over the Parthians. It stood on the Capitoline hill inter duos lucos, and is represented on coins as a single arch surmounted with a quadriga in the centre and bronze figures at the ends. There are no later references to this arch, and it was probably destroyed soon after Nero's death. 
 
1 - 134 ARCUS NOVUS (DIOCLETIANI).
Mentioned in the Regionary Catalogue in Region VII, and ascribed to Diocletian in the Chronograph of 354 A.D. (p. 148). This is probably the marble arch, adorned with trophies, which spanned the via Lata, close to the north-east corner of the present church of S. Maria in via Lata, and was destroyed by Innocent VIII (1488-149. The last remains disappeared in 1523 (LS i. 217). The fragments of a relief found at this point in the sixteenth century, and now in the Villa Medici, probably came from this arch. The inscription suggests that on the arch of Constantine. If this was the arch of Diocletian, and the inscription belongs to it, it was probably built in 303-304.
 
1 - 135 ARCUS OCTAVII.
An arch on the Palatine which Augustus is said to have erected in honour of his father. It has been conjectured that this arch formed the entrance to the sacred precinct of the temple of APOLLO (q.v.), but this seems impossible of proof. Some fragments found in the middle of the sixteenth century may have belonged to this arch. The aedicula with a statue on the top of the arch was without parallel in Rome, so far as we know.
 
1 - 136 ARCUS PANIS AUREI (in Capitolio).
see ARCUS M. AURELII.
 
1 - 137 ARCUS PIETATIS.
Mentioned only in the Mirabilia (2 and the Anon. Magl. It stood on the north side of the Pantheon, perhaps in the line of the enclosing porticus. Hulsen places it close to the church of the Maddalena, connecting it with the wall enclosing the precinct of the TEMPLUM MATIDIAE (q.v.). Rushforth conjectures that it is the arch of Augustus described in the twelfth century by Magister Gregorius as bearing the inscription 'ob orbem devictum Romano regno restitutum et r. p. per Augustum receptam populus Romanus hoc opus condidit,' and mentioned by Dio Cassius as decreed to be set up in the forum in 29 B.C. (but not actually erected) and afterwards placed here. The inscription, though it cannot be a literal transcript, may be the echo of a genuine one (see ARCUS AUGUSTI). A relief on this arch is said (Anon. Magl.) to have represented a woman asking a favour of Trajan, and about this scene a legend was woven, one form of which appears in Dante. This arch cannot be identified with any of those known to us from other sources.
 
1 - 138 ARCUS POMPEII.
Mentioned by Magister Gregorius in the twelfth century.（61 B.C.). Its sculptures represented his triumph with a long train of waggons laden with spoils. Rushforth maintains that this arch had a real existence, but his opinion is not shared by Prof. Hulsen, who points out that the triumphal arch is a creation of the Augustan period.
 
1 - 139 ARCUS RECORDATIONIS.
see ARCO DI DRUSO, ARCUS DRUSI.
 
1 - 140 ARCUS SEPTIMII SEVERI.
The arch erected in 203 A.D. in honour of Severus and his sons Geta and Caracalla, at the north-west corner of the forum, in front of the temple of Concord. This information is contained in the dedicatory inscription on both sides of the attic of the arch, which is still standing. The original bronze letters of this inscription have disappeared, but their matrices remain, and it can be seen that the name of Geta was chiselled away after his murder, and the space filled up with additional titles of Severus and Caracalla. The arch is triple and built of Pentelic marble on a foundation of travertine, which was concealed by the flight of steps that formed the approach to the arch from the forum side. Later, probably in the fourth century, the level in front of the arch on this side was lowered, the flight of steps lengthened, and the top of the foundation cut away to provide for them. The exposed corners of the foundation were then faced with marble. The arch was never traversed by a road until mediaeval times.

The arch is 23 metres high, 25 wide and 11.85 deep, the central archway being metres high and 7 wide, and the side archways 7.80 high and 3 wide. Between the central and side arches are vaulted passages with coffered ceilings. On each face of the arch are four fluted columns with Composite capitals, 8.78 metres high and 0.90 metre in diameter at the base. These columns stand free from the arch on projecting pedestals, and behind them are corresponding pilasters. An entablature surrounds the arch, and above it is the lofty attic, 5.60 metres in height, within which are four chambers.

Over the side arches are narrow bands of reliefs representing the triumphs of Rome over conquered peoples, and above them four large reliefs which represent the campaigns of Severus in the East. In the spandrels of the central arch are winged Victories, and in those of the side arches, river gods. On the keystones of the central arch are reliefs of Mars Victor, and on the pedestals of the columns, Roman soldiers driving captives before them. Coins of Severus and Caracalla show that on the top of the arch was a six- or eight-horse chariot, in which stood Severus and Victory, escorted by Geta and Caracalla, and on the ends four equestrian figures; but of these statues no traces have been found.

The excellent preservation of this monument is due in part to the fact that in the Middle Ages its southern half belonged to the neighbouring church of SS. Sergio e Bacco, and its northern half was fortified. The erection of this arch destroyed the symmetry of this end of the forum.
 
1 - 141 ARCUS SEPTIMII SEVERI (in foro Boario).

ARCUS ARGENTARIORUM.

MONUMENTUM ARGENTARIORUM.

Modern names given to an arch, which probably served as an entrance to the FORUM BOARIUM (q.v.), that stands at the south-west angle of the church of S. Giorgio in Velabro, the campanile resting partly upon one pier of the arch and concealing two of its sides. It was erected in 204 A.D. by the argentarii et negotiantes boarii huius loci quiinvehent, in honour of Septimius Severus, his wife, his sons Caracalla and Geta, and Caracalla's wife Fulvia Plautilla, the daughter of Plautianus. The inscription seems to have been modified thrice-after the fall of Plautianus in 205, after the murder of Plautilla in 21and after the murder of Geta in 212.

The arch is not a true arch, but a flat lintel resting on two piers, and is entirely of marble, except the base, which is of travertine. It is 6.metres in height and the archway is 3.30 metres wide. At the corners of the piers are pilasters with Corinthian capitals, and the whole exterior surface is adorned either with coarse decorative sculpture or reliefs representing sacrificial scenes. On the inside the figures of the imperial family are carved in relief (those of Plautilla and Geta have been removed) ; the ceiling is cut in soffits, and the inscription is on the lintel.
 
1 - 142 ARCUS STILLANS.
The name given in the Scholiast on Juvenal and in the Mirabilia to the arch of the AQUA MARCIA (q.v.), which crossed the via Appia at the PORTA CAPENA (q.v.). It also occurs as arcus Stellae in an interpolation in the life of Stephen I and in a spurious bull of Paschal II, in which, however, the local names have been taken from an authentic document of Calixtus II. Here must have stood the ecclesia S. Laurentii. The possibility of extending the regio schole Grece as far as the porta Capena has recently been denied, and the arcus Stillans consequently identified with the FORNIX AUGUSTI; but the evidence is insufficient.
 
1 - 143 ARCUS TIBERII (in campo Martio).
Mentioned only by Suetonius, who says that Claudius erected in honour of Tiberius, near the theatre of Pompey, a marble arch.
 
1 - 144 ARCUS TIBERII.
Erected in A.D. to commemorate the recovery of the standards which had been captured by the Germans at the defeat of Varus in 9 A.D.. It stood at the north-west corner of the basilica Julia, on the north side of the Sacra via, which was made narrower at this point by having its curb bent toward the south. The arch was single, as represented on a relief on the arch of Constantine, and was approached by steps from the level of the forum. Various architectural fragments were discovered in 1835 and 1848, with parts of the inscription, and its concrete foundations, 9 metres long and 6.3 wide, in 1900.
 
1 - 145 ARCUS TIBURII or DIBURI.
Mediaeval names of an arch near the site of the PORTICUS DIVORUM (q.v.) of Domitian, and perhaps forming its entrance.
 
1 - 146 ARCUS TITI.
Often called ARCUS VESPASIANI ET TITI, erected in 80/81 A.D. by the senate in honour of the emperor Titus, and to commemorate the capture of Jerusalem. We have no information about this arch, except what is contained in the inscription preserved in the Einsiedeln Itinerary and reported to have been found in the circus Maximus. As a fragment of the Marble Plan indicates an arch at the east end of the circus, it is supposed that this arch replaced the porta Pompae, as the entrance at this point of the circus was regularly called.
 
1 - 147 ARCUS TITI.
Erected in honour of Titus and in commemoration of the siege of Jerusalem in summa Sacra via but not finished and dedicated until after his death. There is no mention of this arch in ancient literature, though it may be alluded to by Martial quoted s.v. DOMUS AUREA. The theory that it was erected under Nerva and Trajan is improbable. In the Middle Ages it formed part of the stronghold of the Frangipani, a chamber was constructed in the upper part of the archway, and the level of the roadway was lowered considerably, exposing the travertine foundations. The injury to the structure was so great that it was taken down in 1822 and rebuilt by Valadier, who restored a large part of the attic and the outer half of both piers in travertine. The frieze and inscription are therefore preserved only on the side towards the Colosseum. The foundations of the arch stand on the pavement of the CLIVUS PALATINUS (q.v.), and therefore it has been thought by some that the arch stood originally farther north and was moved when the temple of Venus and Roma was built.

It is, however, far more likely that the pavement belongs to the pre-Neronian period, and that the position of the arch was the only one possible, given the existence of the vestibule of the domus Aurea. The arch was constructed of Pentelic marble, and is 13.50 metres wide, 15.40 high, and 4.75 deep. The archway is 8.30 metres high and 5.36 wide. Above it is a simple entablature, and an attic 4.40 metres in height, on which is the inscription, which is preserved only on the east side. On each side is an engaged and fluted Corinthian column, standing on a square pedestal. The capitals of these columns are the earliest examples of the Composite style. On the inner jambs of the arch are the two famous reliefs, that on the south representing the spoils from the temple at Jerusalem, the table of shewbread, the seven-branched candlestick, and the silver trumpets, which are being carried in triumph into the city; and that on the north representing Titus standing in a quadriga, the horses of which are led by Roma, while Victory crowns the emperor with laurel as he passes through a triumphal arch. In the centre of the ceiling of the archway, which is finished in soffits (lacunaria), is a relief of the apotheosis of Titus, representing him (or rather his bust) as being carried up to heaven by an eagle. The frieze  contains a procession of various personages both civil and military, and of animals being led to sacrifice; we may recognise a personification of the river god of the Jordan in a recumbent figure, carried by three men. In the spandrels are the usual winged Victories; while on the keystones are figures of Roma (or Virtus) towards the Colosseum, and the Genius populi Romani towards the Forum. In type the arch is the simplest of those existing in Rome; the sides of the piers, which are not adorned with sculpture, were adorned with niches like windows.
 
1 - 148 Caecilia Metella.

From Wikipedia.

The Tomb of Caecilia Metella (Italian: Mausoleo di Cecilia Metella) is a mausoleum located just outside Rome at the three mile marker of the Via Appia. It was built during the 1st century BC to honor Caecilia Metella who was the daughter of Quintus Caecilius Metellus Creticus, a Consulin 69 BC, and wife of Marcus Licinius Crassus (quaestor), son of the famous Marcus Crassus who served under Julius Caesar.

The Tomb of Caecilia is one of the most well known and well preserved monuments along the Via Appia and a popular tourist site. In 2013, the museum circuit of the Baths of Caracalla, Villa of the Quintilii, and the Tomb of Caecilia Metella was the twenty-second most visited site in Italy, with 245,6visitors and a total gross income of €883,344.

Description.

Located on top of a hill along the Via Appia, the Tomb of Caecilia Metella consists of a cylindrical drum, or rotunda, atop a square podium with the Caetani Castle (Castrum) attached at the rear. The square podium stands at 8.3 meters tall with the cylindrical drum standing at m. The monument in totality stands at a height of 21.7 meters tall. The diameter of the circular drum is 29.5 m, equivalent to 100 Roman feet.

On the outside of the monument, an inscription can be seen reading "CAECILIAE |Q·CRETICI·F | METELLAE·CRASSI" indicating to whom this tomb was dedicated. Further up the monument, decorations can be seen depicting festoons and bucrania, heads of bulls, which were the inspiration for the area being named Capo Di Bove, meaning head of the bovine. At the top of the monument, medieval battlements can be seen from the time when the tomb was used as a fortress.

At the rear, the Caetani Castle is attached to the tomb. The castle originally was three levels: ground level, first level, and second level. It is unknown what the second level was used for but the first floor was used for the elite gentlemen as evidenced by fireplaces and refined goods. The castle is now used to display various decorations from the monument.

Mausoleum.

Structure.

The foundation of the Tomb of Caecilia Metella rests partially on tuff rock and partially on lava rock. The lava rock is part of ancient lava flow from the Alban Hills that covered the area 260,000 years ago.

The core of the podium was cast in several layers of concrete, ranging from .7 to .85 m thick. The thickness of each layer corresponds with the height of the travertine facing blocks that surrounded the podium as the travertine was used as a frame in order to help the concrete layers form.

The rotunda was built in this same fashion, travertine blocks on the outermost section with cement poured in the middle to give the concrete some structure and then covered in Travertine revetment, most of which has been stripped away. While the walls of the tower are 24 ft thick, comparatively the adjoining castle of the Gaetani was made of a thin wall of tufa.

Originally the top of the monument would have been a cone shaped earthen mound as conical shapes were common with Roman rotundas but the earthen mound has long been replaced by medieval battlements. It is believed the

The Roman concrete was made up of semi-liquid mortar and aggregate, which consisted of broken pieces of stone or bricks. The aggregate was made up of rather large pieces of stone (about the size of a fist) compared to modern cement which is finely ground to create a smooth, flat surface. Mortar and concrete were alternated in the construction as the semi-liquid mortar would bind the stone pieces together. The mortar used at this tomb utilized the lava rock beneath the monument as a substitute for sand in the concrete. The lava rock worked as well as sand and was more abundant versus the difficult to find sand.

Interior.

The interior of the Tomb of Caecilia Metella can be separated into 4 sections: the cella, the upper and lower corridors, and the west compartment. The most important being the cella which was used for funerary purposes and for "housing" the dead.

The cella is a tall, circular shaft rising all the way through the center of both the podium and the rotunda. The cella is about 6.6 m in diameter at the bottom but tapers as it rises to a 5.6 m diameter at the top. The top features an oculus allowing for light. Throughout the cella, there are over 143 cut outs, divided into rows of 10-14, in the walls of the cella that were used as putlog holes in the creation of the monument.

The upper corridors is believed to be the main entrance to the cella.

Exterior.

The upper section of the rotunda is decorated quite minimally with a marble frieze of bucrania, oxen heads, and garlands. Beneath the frieze is the famous inscription "CAECILIAE |Q·CRETICI·F | METELLAE·CRASSI" meaning "To Caecilia Metella, daughter of Quintus Creticus, and wife of Crassus".

Decorations were very popular on funerary altars and votive offerings and the most famous example are identified in the frieze of carved ox skulls and festoons on the inside of the fence. Three types of bull heads can be distinguished: complete bovine head, skull of bull but still covered with skin, and a full skeletal skull. The inclusion of the naked skull is indicative of the creation of the The termination of use of the complete bull skull and the skull with skin occurred around 30 BC and the inclusion of the The use of particular bull heads allow for an approximate date to be made, as bull heads seen on dated monuments can be compared.

The bull heads and garlands indicate and verify the timing of the creation of the monument. During the time period, the Roman decoration of bull heads was shifting and thus the representation of particular bull heads approximate the date.

Sarcophagus.

Today, there is a marble sarcophagus located in Palazzo Farnese that is purportedly from the Tomb of Caecilia Metella. According to literary sources, it was found in the cella and had been there since before the construction of the Caetani Castle. However, there is no definitive evidence to verify the sarcophagus as the sarcophagus of Caecilia Metella and many historians believe the sarcophagus does not belong to the monument and had been found in the surrounding area of the mausoleum rather than inside it.

Recently, the sarcophagus was the object of a detailed study and the author of this study dates sarcophagus between AD 180 and 190. Further evidence suggesting this to not be the sarcophagus of Caecilia Metella is at the time of Caecilia Metella's death, cremation was the typical burial custom and a funerary urn is expected rather than a sarcophagus. In addition, records from 1697 of the Farnese Collection state the sarcophagus was registered without a specified provenience indicating even at the time, historians were unsure of the relationship between the sarcophagus and the tomb.

Castrum.

Between 1302 and 1303, the Caetani, or Gaetani, family aided by Pope Boniface VIII bought the estate of Capo di Bove, which was all the land surrounding and including the Tomb of Caecilia Metella, and built a fortified camp, or castrum, next to the tomb replacing a preceding 11th century building. 

The castrum's construction included the building of stables, houses, warehouses, the church of St. Nicholas, and the palace of the Caetani as well as adding the medieval battlements to the top of the tomb thus transforming the tomb into a defensive tower. Sadly, the remnants of the Caetani only include the Church of St. Nicholas, parts of the Caetani Palace, and the medieval battlements.

The Caetani used this fort to control the traffic on the road and to collect exorbitant tolls. In the fourteenth century the castle was passed to the Savelli, and to the Orsini who held it until 1435, after which it became the property of the Roman Senate. According to Gerding, the monument was abandoned in 1485.

Over the centuries, the two monuments endured numerous attempts of destruction in order to repurpose their materials. However, the two monuments protected one another from destruction. During the Renaissance, the monuments were saved as they were valued for the castrum while during Romanticism, the tomb, with its charm, allowed the survival of the castrum.
 
1 - 149 ARCUS DE TOSECTIS.
The name given to a marble arch in the Anon. Magi., which may possibly be the ARCUS NOVUS of Diocletian.
 
1 - 150 ARCUS AD TRES FASCICLAS, TRIPOLIS or TROFOLI.
Mediaeval names of the ARCO DI PORTOGALLO.
 
1 - 151 ARCUS TRAIANI.
see FORUM TRAIANI.
 
1 - 152 ARCUS TRAIANI.
mentioned only in the Regionary Catalogue in Region I, and probably represented on a coin struck between 103 and 1A.D. Here it has only a single passage way, but has projections on each side that are covered with sculpture. Above is the emperor in a six-horse chariot, with attendant figures. This arch may perhaps be that which is just inside the porta S. Sebastiano, known as the ARCO DI DRUSO.
 
1 - 153 ARCUS VALENTINIANI.
see PONS AURELIUS.
 
1 - 154 ARCUS DIVI VERI.
Mentioned only in the Regionary Catalogue in Region I. It probably stood on the via Appia, but nothing else is known about it (see ARCO DI DRUSO). A relief in the Torlonia collection is attributed to this arch, or at any rate to some monument of Lucius Verus, which celebrated his Parthian triumphs; or else to the same series as the reliefs on the attic of the arch of Constantine. 
 
1 - 155 ARCUS VESPASIANI ET TITI.
see ARCUS TITI-1.
 
1 - 156 AREA APOLLINIS.
Mentioned only in the Regionary Catalogue in Region I.
 
1 - 157 AREA APOLLINIS (in Palatio).
see AEDES APOLLINIS.
 
1 - 158 AREA CALLES.
In the Notitia et Calles is added to the words aream Apollinis et Splenis of both Notitia and Curiosum, in Region I, but the reading is very doubtful.
 
1 - 159 AREA CALLISTI.
Found only on a slave's collar. It was in the Transtiberine district, probably near the castra Ravennatium, and the church of S. Maria in Trastevere.
 
1 - 160 AREA CANDIDI.
Mentioned only in the Notitia, after DECEM TABERNAE (q.v.), in Region VI. It was probably not far from the southern point of the Viminal, perhaps in the neighbourhood of S. Pudenziana.
 
1 - 161 AREA CAPITOLINA.
The open space in front of and around the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the south summit of the Capitoline, made by building retaining walls and substructures round the edge of the hill and levelling off the surface enclosed. The area was therefore in effect a built-up platform, part of which at least was contemporaneous with the foundations of the temple. It was enlarged in 388 B.C., and was regarded as a notable monument even at the beginning of the empire. The extent of the area has been a matter of dispute, and some scholars have maintained that it did not extend more than about 15-metres from the sides of the temple, but the prevailing view at present is that it covered practically all of the Capitolium. Remains of the walls of the substructures have been found on the east side which prove that the area extended in this direction about 35 metres from the temple. On the west it was probably not more than 30 metres wide, and in front from 40 to 45. Behind the temple there appears to have been only a narrow space, but wide enough for the passage of a procession. Besides the space occupied by the great temple, the area therefore contained something more than one hectare of surface, sufficient for the other temples and monuments that stood in the area Capitolina.

The area was surrounded by a wall, and a porticus built in 159 B.C. on the inner side of the wall. The principal entrance was in the middle of the south-east side, opposite the front of the great temple, where the clivus Capitolinus ended, and was sometimes referred to as fores Capitolii. A little south of this entrance, near the corner of the area, was the PORTA PANDANA(q.v.), and there may have been others. The area was closed at night and protected by dogs, under the charge of a janitor in whose house Domitian took refuge from the Vitellians. This house was afterwards removed to make room for the Shrine (q.v.) of IUPPITER CONSERVATOR. Sacred geese were also kept in the area. Beneath the surface of the area were subterranean passages called favissae, which were entered from the cella of the great temple, and served as store-rooms for the old statues that had fallen from its roof, and for various dedicatory gifts.

Within this area were the casa Romuli, the Curia calabra, the aedes Tensarum, and the atrium Publicum; and a considerable number of temples-of Fides, Iuppiter Feretrius, Iuppiter Custos, Iuppiter Conservator, Iuppiter Tonans, Ops, Mars Ultor, Fortuna Primigenia, and probably of Mens and Venus Erycina; as well as of several altars or shrines-the great altar of Jupiter (see TEMPLE OF JUPITER), of Iuppiter Soter, Isis and Serapis, Bellona, Genius Populi Romani with Felicitas and Venus Victrix, the gens Iulia, and perhaps Iuppiter Victor and Indulgentia (see all these under their own names). The temple of Fides probably stood at the south-west corner of the area, but the site of the others is unknown. 

There were also many statues of various deities set up in the area and in the temples. One of Jupiter, of colossal size, was erected by Sp. Carvilius in 293 B.C. and could be seen from the temple of Iuppiter Latiaris on the Alban mount; a second stood on a high pillar and after 63 B.C. was turned to face the east. In 305B.C. a colossal statue of Hercules was placed in Capitolio, and another, the work of Lysippus, was brought from Tarentum in 209. There were others of Mars, Liberpater, Iuppiter Africus, and Nemesis.

It became customary to erect statues of famous Romans on the Capitol, although it is not always possible to determine whether they stood in the open area, or within the precincts of some temple. Those that seem to have stood in the open area were the statues of the kings and Brutus, L. Scipio, M. Aemilius Lepidus, the Metelli, Q. Marcius Rex, T. Seius, Pinarius Natta, Domitian, Claudius, Aurelian. These became so numerous that Augustus removed many of them to the campus Martius.

Trophies of victory, like those of Marius and Germanicus, and votive monuments; were also thickly strewn about, and a wholesale removal of these objects was ordered, as it had been in 179 B.C., in the time of Augustus. Very many bronze tablets containing treaties and laws and military diplomas were preserved within the area, being ordinarily fastened to the walls of the area and of the temples, and to the bases of the statues and monuments.
 
1 - 162 AREA CARRUCES.
Mentioned only in the Regionary Catalogue in Region I. This was probably the square in which travellers were accustomed to leave their carriages, and connected with the schola carrucarum (better carrucariorum), or headquarters of those engaged in the business of transportation, which was situated between the porta Appia and the temple of Mars. See MUTATORIUM CAESARIS.
 
1 - 163 AREA CONCORDIAE.
see CONCORDIA, AEDES.
 
1 - 164 AREA CARBONIANA.
Somewhere on the Caelian, and known only from one source in early Christian literature.
 
1 - 165 AREA MACARI.
In Region V, known only from the inscription on a lead disk.
 
1 - 166 AREA PALATINA.
An open space on the Palatine, mentioned by Gellius, and in the Notitia, (Reg. X), and probably to be identified with the εὐ.. of Josephus, through which the praetorians carried Claudius to their barracks. The evidence points to a site between the domus Flavia and the domus Tiberiana, at the top of the street leading up to the Palatine from the porta Mugonia, now called the clivus Palatinus. How early the term, area Palatina, came into use, and what were the variations in its extent, it is not possible to determine.
 
1 - 167 AREA PANNARIA.
Mentioned only in the Regionary Catalogue in Region I, with no indication of even its approximate location.
 
1 - 168 AREA RADICARIA.
Mentioned in the Regionary Catalogue in Region XII, and marked on a fragment ( of the Marble Plan. It appears to have been at the north-west corner of the baths of Caracalla.
 
1 - 169 AREA SATURNI.
The open space adjoining the temple of Saturn in the forum. The name occurs only in inscriptions, and it is not certain whether the area was in front of the temple or behind it, but probably behind, that is, on the south, between the clivus Capitolinus and the vicus Iugarius. Bronze tablets, on which laws were inscribed, were set up around this area; and the offices of the aerarium probably opened on it. At least one guild of merchants had its office here.
 
1 - 170 AREA SPLENIS.
In the Regionary Catalogue (Reg. I) et Splenis occurs after aream  Apollinis, but whether this is a corruption due to dittography from Apollinis, or conceals some genuine reading, was thought to be uncertain. The doubt as to the reading is, however, it would seem, unnecessary. As Hulsen has pointed out, we must take into consideration a hitherto unnoticed mediaeval legend quoted by Torrigio and Martinelli, according to which, under Pope Sergius I (687-70, some robbers who had seized the picture were frightened by thunder and lightning when on their way from S. Sisto Vecchio (on the via Appia) to the Lateran they had come ad locum qui dicitur Spleni, which must therefore be sought somewhere near the PORTA METROVIA.
 
1 - 171 AREA VOLCANI (I).
see VOLCANAL.
 
1 - 172 AREA VOLCANI (.
Mentioned only in the Regionary Catalogue in Region IV, and situated perhaps in the neighbourhood of the Argiletum.
 
1 - 173 ARGEORUM SACRARIA. 
Twenty-seven sacraria situated at various points in the four Servian regions that were visited in order on the Ides of May by a solemn lustral procession in which the priests, the vestals, and the city praetor took part. This procession afterwards halted on the pons Sublicius and threw into the Tiber twenty-seven straw puppets, called Argei. The sacraria themselves, as well as the puppets, were called Argei, or Argea. On the sixteenth and seventeenth of March a similar procession visited the sacraria, and may very probably have deposited in them the puppets that were to be taken out in May.

As to the meaning and origin of Argei, and of the ceremony itself, both ancient and modern writers have expressed the most diverse views, and there is a voluminous literature on the subject. It is probable that the institution was introduced into Rome from Greece between the first and second Punic wars, in accordance with the instructions of the Sibylline books; perhaps the first celebration was actually carried out with human victims for whom the straw puppets were afterwards substituted, and Primitive Culture in Italy, 103.

Varro mentions fourteen of these sacraria, quoting in the case of twelve from what was evidently the official record of the pontiffs that directed the order of the procession from one to another. This gives, for each region, first the name of the hill or distinctive locality, then the number of the shrine, and finally further topographical details, some of which date from the time of introduction of the ceremony and some of them from later periods. The two that are not mentioned in this formal manner are the first and sixth of the regio Suburana respectively on the mons Caelius and in the Subura, i.e. the SUCUSA (q.v.), and not to be exactly located. The others appear as follows.

Regio Suburana-

No. 4. On the part of the Caelian called Ceroliensis, near the temple of Minerva, and intabernola (a phrase of doubtful meaning, cf. No. 3 of regio Esquilina below; HJ 227). This station therefore was on the northern slope of the Caelian, near the temple of Minerva Capta, probably a little north-west of the present church of SS. Quattro Coronati.

Regio Esquilina-

No. I. On the Fagutal, near the top of the modern Via della Polveriera.

No. 3. Just east of the site afterwards occupied by the thermae Traianae, near the modern Via Mecenate.

No. 4. Probably north of No. 3, near the edge of the hill, and the modern church of S. Martino ai Monti.

No. 5.  As the location of the lucus Poetelius is unknown, the approximate site of this sacrarium cannot be fixed.

No. 6. The temple of JUNO LUCINA (q.v.) was probably near the top of the southern slope of the Cispius, just above the present Via dello Statuto.

Regio Collina-

No. 3.  Just east of the temple of QUIRINUS (q.v.), near the corner of the present Vie Quattro Fontane and del Quirinale .

No. 4. Farther south-west on the line of the vicus portae Collinae close to the DOMUS ATTICI.

No. 5.  This temple of DEUS FIDIUS or SEMO SANCUS (q.v.) was on the southern part of the collis Mucialis, probably on the site of the present church of S. Silvestro, in the Via del Quirinale.

No. 6. On the slope above the present Piazza Magnanapoli. If solum is the correct reading, the meaning must be that this was the only sacrarium of the twenty- seven that had its own independent building, and that the others were parts of, or within the precincts of, other buildings.

Regio Palatina-

No. 5. Germalense quinticeps apud aedem Romuli, on the Cermalus, where the CASA (here called aedes) ROMULI (q.v.) stood. In fact, the building which is sometimes identified with this sacrarium has been by others thought to be the casa Romuli.

No. 6. Veliense sexticeps in Velia apud aedem deum Penatium- probably close to the site afterwards occupied by the temple of Venus and Roma (see AEDES DEUM PENATIUM).

Of the twelve sacraria described by Varro, eleven can thus be located with considerable certainty. The situation of the rest is purely conjectural, based on the probable route of the procession.
 
1 - 174 ARGILETUM.
The street between the Subura and the forum, which it entered between the Curia and the basilica Aemilia. The lower part of the Argiletum, which had been occupied by private houses, was converted by Domitian and Nerva into the forum Transitorium. The name was probably derived from the clay (argilla) that was dug near by, although other explanations, more or less fanciful, were current in antiquity. It was one of the great arteries of communication in Rome, and a centre of trade, but not by any means the centre of the book trade; it also bore a somewhat unsavoury reputation.
 
1 - 175 ARMAMENTARIUM.
An armoury of the LUDUS MAGNUS (q.v.) in region II, attached to the Flavian amphitheatre. It is mentioned only in the Regionary Catalogue, and in one inscription.
 
1 - 176 ARMAMENTARIUM (in castris praetoriis). 
see CASTRA-PRAETORIA.
 
1 - 177 ARMILUSTRIUM.
An open space on the north-western part of the Aventine, probably just south of the present church of S. Sabina, where the annual festival of the Armilustrium was celebrated on 19th October. Titus Tatius was said to have been buried here. The vicus Armilustri probably passed through it, and may have followed the line of the modern Via di S. Sabina.
 
1 - 178 ARX.
The northern part of the Capitoline hill, separated from the southern part, the CAPITOLIUM proper (q.v.), by a depression (v. ASYLUM) which was the citadel of Rome after the city had expanded sufficiently to include the Quirinal and Viminal hills-that stage of the growth commonly known as the City of the Four Regions. The height of this part of the hill was about 49 metres above sea-level, and its area about one hectare. This arx, also called arx Capitolina, preserved its military importance down to the first century A.D., for proof that Sabinus  held the arx, and not the temple of Jupiter), though it had no permanent garrison. In the early days sentinels were posted here while the comitia were being held in the campus Martius, to watch for the signal displayed on the Janiculum of an approaching enemy. Another signal was raised on the arx, to which reference is frequently made, and the trumpet blown.

Titus Tatius is said to have lived on the arx, and also M. Manlius Capitolinus, whose house was destroyed in 384 B.C., when the senate decreed that henceforth no patrician should dwell on the arx or Capitolium. On the site of this house, Camillus erected the temple of IUNO MONETA (q.v.) in 344 B.C. One other temple certainly stood on the arx, that of Concord dedicated in 2B.C., and possibly two others, of VEIOVIS and HONOS ET VIRTUS (qq.v.). There is no record of any other public buildings on the arx, but on its north-east corner was the AUGURACULUM (q.v.), a grassy open space where the augurs took their observations.

The original topography of the arx is quite uncertain; for the construction of the church and cloisters of S. Maria in Aracoeli in the ninth century changed completely all previous conditions. When the foundations were laid for the great national monument of Victor Emmanuel, which now covers most of the arx north of the Aracoeli and the slope of the hill below, some traces of the scarped cliff and the tufa walls of the primitive fortification of the hill were found, and fragments of three sections of the later so-called Servian wall which passed around the north corner of the hill. Two of these sections were on the north-east, and one on the north-west side of the hill, just below its top. That private houses extended some distance up the sides of the arx from the low ground below, as they did on the slopes of the Capitolium and to the limits of the Asylum, is shown by the discovery of the ruins of walls and pavements near S. Rita and along the line of the Via Giulio Romano.
 
1 - 179 ARX IANICULENSIS.
The name given by modern topographers to the fortifications that were probably erected on the Janiculum, near the later porta Aurelia, when the first stone bridge, pons Aemilius, was built across the Tiber in 179 B.C..
 
1 - 180 ARX TARPEIA.
A term applied by Vergil and Propertius to the arx Capitolina.
 
1 - 181 ASINUS FRICTUS.
see ARCUS NERONIANI.
 
1 - 182 ASYLUM.
An enclosed area in the depression between the two summits of the Capitoline, (see MONS CAPITOLINUS). The name was explained by the story that Romulus welcomed here the refugees from surrounding communities. Asylum and INTER DUOS LUCOS (q.v.) were sometimes synonymous terms.
 
1 - 183 ASYLUM CERERIS.
According to Varro the right of asylum existed in the temple of CERES LIBER ET LIBERA.
 
1 - 184 ATHENAEUM.
A building erected by Hadrian, called by Aurelius Victor ludus ingenuarumartium, and used for readings, lectures, and training in declamation. It was built apparently in the form of a theatre or ampitheatre, but its site is unknown, although it has been placed on the Capitoline, in the campus Martius, or in the Velabrum, and identified with the GRAECOSTADIUM.
 
1 - 185 ATRIUM CACI.
Mentioned only in the Regionary Catalogue, (Reg. VIII), and probably a hall of some sort near the SCALAE CACI.
 
1 - 186 ATRIUM CYCLOPIS.
See ANTRUM CYCLOPIS.
 
1 - 187 ATRIUM LIBERTATIS.
A building containing the offices of the censors, some at least of their records, and some of the laws on bronze tablets. It is also said to have served as the place of detention of the Thurian hostages in 2B.C. and for the torture of the slaves during the trial of Milo. It was restored in 194 B.C. and again with great magnificence by Asinius Pollio, who established here the first public library in Rome (BIBLIOTHECA ASINI POLLIONIS). It is not to be confused with the Aedes Libertatis on the Aventine, and probably not with the shrine or monument that is marked with the word Libertatis on the Marble Plan in the north apse of the basilica Ulpia. Three inscriptions refer to this atrium in the first century A.D..

The first runs thus: Senatus populusque Romanus Libertati (in large letters on a marble slab); and the second, Libertati ab. imp. Nerva Caesare Aug. anno ab urbe condita. Hulsen supposes, very naturally, that the first inscription belonged to the dedicatory inscription of a shrine with the statue of Libertas, (near the curia, not on the Capitol), under which the second inscription could very well have stood. There is no other reference until the sixth century, when an inscription was set up in some part of the curia as follows: salvis domino nostro Augusto et gloriosissimo rege Theoderico Va... ex com(es) domesticorum  in atrio Libertatis quae vetustate squaloreque confecta erant refecit. The restoration was obviously an important one, and Mommsen has collected several references to the building in Cassiodorus and Ennodius. Of other earlier references to the building the only one that has topographical value is in Cicero's letter to Atticus, where he says that he and Oppius proposed to extend the new forum of Caesar usque ad atrium Libertatis. This extension must have been along the line of the successive imperial fora, passing the comitium, but how far from the old forum this atrium was we do not know. The history of the restored building of Pollio, and its relation to that part of the curia that bore its name in the sixth century, are unknown. The earlier atrium was probably not on the site of the later curia, and it was probably destroyed or used for other purposes before the sixth century.
 
1 - 188 ATRIA LICINIA.
Auction rooms at the entrance to the MACELLUM (q.v.), probably just north of the basilica Aemilia at the beginning of the Subura.
 
1 - 189 ATRIUM MAENIUM.
A building which, together with the atrium Titium and four tabernae, standing in lautumiis, were bought by the elder Cato in order that he might erect his basilica on their site. The Pseudo-Asconius, in telling the same story, calls this atrium a domus, but this is probably an error. It was rather a hall or office.
 
1 - 190 ATRIUM MINERVAE.
A later name for the CHALCIDICUM (q.v.), an annex to the curia built by Augustus.
 
1 - 191 ATRIUM PUBIICUM (in Capitolio).
A public office, perhaps containing some of the state archives, said by Livy to have been struck by lightning in 2B.C. It may possibly be identified with the τῶ.., in which Polybius says that the treaties between Rome and Carthage were kept in his time.
 
1 - 192 ATRIUM REGIUM.
Found only in Livy, and used apparently of the ATRIUM VESTAE (q.v.). The origin of this name may be due to the confusion between Atrium Vestae and REGIA.
 
1 - 193 ATRIA SEPTEM.
Mentioned only in the Chronograph of 354 A.D. among the buildings of Domitian. Nothing further is known of these atria.
 
1 - 194 ATRIUM SUTORIUM.
A building in which the ceremony of tubilustrium was annually performed. Its site is unknown, but it is natural to connect it with the shoe trade, and to place it in the Argiletum. As it is not mentioned after the first century, its site may have been occupied by the forum Transitorium.
 
1 - 195 ATRIUM TITIUM.
see ATRIUM MAENIUM.
 
1 - 196 ATRIUM VESTAE.
The house of the Vestal Virgins at the foot of the Palatine, just east of the forum proper. By the end of the republic this term had come to mean their dwelling-house, in which sense it is ordinarily used in extant literature, but originally it included the whole precinct of Vesta. This precinct contained the temple of VESTA (q.v.), the dwelling of the Vestals, the sacred grove, the domus Publica or official residence of the pontifex maximus, and the REGIA (q.v.) itself or house of the king. This group was called both Regia and atrium Vestae. The confused terms atrium regium, in reference to the fire of 2B.C. and regia Vestae.

The grove, lucus, originally covered the space between the atrium and the Palatine, but was gradually encroached upon, and finally disappeared entirely, as it would seem. The domus Publica still continued to be the residence of the pontifex maximus until Augustus, on assuming that office in B.C., transferred it to the Palatine and presented the domus Publica to the Vestals. In 36 B.C. Domitius Calvinus built the marble Regia, an entirely separate structure. After the republic, therefore, the precinct of Vesta included the temple, the grove, and the actual dwelling of the Vestals, to which the name atrium was generally restricted. This name would lead us to infer that the court, atrium, was the most prominent part of the precinct, and it was certainly large enough for meetings of the senate.

Knowledge of the history of the atrium must be derived from the evidence of the ruins themselves. Some discoveries were made in 1549, and extensive excavations were carried out in 1883 and 1899-1902.

These excavations show some remains of the republican atrium, that is, the house of the Vestals, immediately south of the temple, adjoining the domus Publica on the east, with the same north and south orientation. This indicates the antiquity of both, though almost no remains earlier than the second century B.C. are now visible. They consist of a small court with rows of rooms on the south and west sides, with walls and pavements still visible at some points under the north-west corner of the latest building; that of the court is a lithostroton pavement of the Sullan period. The domus Publica seems to have been larger than the house of the Vestals, and to have occupied all the space between the Sacra via and the earlier Nova via. Its remains, forming virtually a part of the original atrium, lie along the north side of the latest building and were entirely covered up by the road that Nero built here in front of the shops.

Close to the main entrance to the atrium, at its north-west corner, is the podium, about 3 by 2 metres in dimensions, of a shrine, generally called aedicula Vestae, and supposed to have been built to house a statue of the goddess, as the temple itself did not contain any. This shrine was not built until the second stage of the imperial atrium, for it blocked a door belonging to that period. Some fragments of the marble lining and plinth are in situ; and the entablature with an inscription of the time of Hadrian which records a restoration, together with numerous architectural bits, have been found. The entablature has been placed upon a column and a brick pier.

The atrium Vestae was probably destroyed in the fire of Nero, and was certainly rebuilt by him, when he remodelled the whole of this quarter in a different form and with a different orientation. It now consisted of a trapezoidal enclosure (in which the temple was included) approximately the size of the later building, with a central court surrounded by rooms on three sides. Against the north enclosure wall was a row of tabernae opening into the arcade leading up to the vestibule of the DOMUS AUREA(q.v.); and the porticus occupied the whole intervening space between the eastern enclosure wall and the street connecting the Sacra and Nova via to the east. There is thus no space left for the garden, which, it was thought, might have been a survival of the lucus (see VESTA, LUCUS).

This building was injured by fire, and restored by Domitian, who erected a colonnade round the court, with a long, shallow piscina in the centre, and entirely rebuilt the west end. Hadrian built a block of rooms across the east end, thereby extending the area of the house as far as the cross street mentioned above; he also closed in the front of the largest room (on Van Deman's plans) on the south, and built new back walls in this and the room next to it. This was continued under the Antonines, the object being to diminish the damp, due to the shutting off of the sun's rays by Hadrian's additions to the DOMUS TIBERIANA (q.v.). For the same reason the floor level was raised about 0.70 metre. In this period, too, Hadrian's additions were linked up with the rest of the house, and a second and third story were added over them. Finally, after suffering injury in the fire of Commodus, the atrium was restored by Julia Domna, and the courtyard lengthened to 69 metres so as to occupy the whole of the central area. It was then that the arches spanning the Nova via were built, serving as a support both to the upper stories of the atrium and to the structures on the lower slopes of the Palatine. After this date various minor alterations were made, including the construction, in the Constantinian period, of an octagonal structure enclosing a circle in the centre of the peristyle (perhaps the foundation of a pavilion, or the edging of a garden bed) and of two small piscinae, one at each end, to replace the large one, which was no longer in symmetry with the plan.

After the last restoration the central court was surrounded by a double colonnade, replaced at a still later period by a brick wall pierced by arches. Round the court stood numerous statues of Virgines Vestales Maximae on inscribed pedestals. At the east end was a large hall paved with fine marbles, with three rooms on each side of it; on the south of it is a small hall, with a sort of vaulted cellar and to the north is a room in which an archaic altar, belonging to the Republican house, has been found. On the south side of the courtyard is a group of rooms used for household purposes, after which comes a series of finely decorated rooms. At the west end are some rooms which are cut off from the courtyard, and may, it is thought, have served for the cult of the Lares (cf. LARES, AEDES); and further west still are rooms probably used for the cult of Vesta in connection with the temple. Two hoards of coins were found in the house: 830 Saxon coins, dating down to the middle of the tenth century, in 1883, and 397 gold coins dating from 335 to 467-472 A.D. in 1899.

A statue of Numa with a head of an ideal Greek type of the fifth century B.C., with a space for a bronze beard, was found in the house of the Vestals. As the body shows, it probably belongs to the period of Trajan. The head shows evidence of the rite of resectio (see LUCUS FURRINAE).
 
1 - 197 AUDITORIUM MAECENATIS.
The modern name of the remains of a building that stands in the angle between the via Merulana and the via Leopardi. This building is constructed of opus reticulatum of the time of Augustus, and stands obliquely across the line of the Servian wall. In form it is a rectangular hall with a semi-circular apse at the west end, the total length being 24.metres and the width 10.60. Since the floor is 7 metres below the ancient level of the ground, the hall had to be entered by an inclined plane. The walls reach 6 metres above the ancient ground level, and the roof was probably vaulted. In the apse are seven rows of curved steps, arranged like the cavea of a theatre. Above the steps in the apse are five niches, and six more in each of the side walls of the hall. All of these were beautifully painted with garden scenes and landscapes in the third Pompeian style, but the frescoes have mostly disappeared. The original pavement was of white mosaic, over which a later pavement of marble was laid. The purpose of this hall is unknown. It is probably not an auditorium, but may have been a sort of conservatory, although it is difficult to see how it could have been properly lighted. It has been ascribed to Maecenas because his HORTI (q.v.) were supposed to have extended as far south as this point, but this is very uncertain. A good plan is in BC 1914, where Pinza calls it the ODEON.
 
1 - 198 AUGURACULUM.

The open space on the arx, where the public auspices were taken after the Capitoline hill had become a part of the city. In the centre of this open space was the thatched hut of the observer, which was preserved in its primitive form at least as late as the time of Augustus (cf. CASA ROMULI.) The auguraculum was on the north-east corner of the arx, above the clivus Argentarius, probably near the apse of the present church of S. Maria in Aracoeli.
 
1 - 199 AUGURACULUM (in Quirinale).
A templum on the collis Latiaris, the southernmost part of the Quirinal, mentioned only once, in Varro's account of the Argei. It seems to have been the augural centre of the early Quirinal settlement, as that on the arx was of the later city.
 
1 - 200 AUGURATORIUM.
An augural area on the Palatine, mentioned only in the Regionary Catalogue and Mirabilia. It may have marked the spot where legend said that Romulus took the auspices, or it may be identical with the CURIA SALIORUM (q.v.). It is possible that an inscription, recording the restoration of an auguratorium by Hadrian, may belong to the structure on the Palatine, which a recent theory identifies with a rectangular foundation of this period between the temple of Cybele and the domus Augusti.
 
1 - 201 AUGUSTUS MONS.
The name given to the Caelian hill by the senate in 27 A.D., in gratitude to Tiberius for his generosity in repairing the ravages of a great fire on that hill, and in recognition of the miraculous preservation of a statue of the emperor. There is no record of the use of the name, and it probably did not survive after the death of Tiberius even in official documents.
 
1 - 202 AUGUSTUS, ARA.
An altar known only from the Praenestine Calendar. that was dedicated by Tiberius, probably in the lifetime of Augustus. Its location is unknown.
 
1 - 203 AUGUSTUS, DIVUS, SACRARIUM.
A shrine of the deified Augustus on the Palatine, on the site of his birthplace AD CAPITA BUBULA (q.v.). It was standing in the time of Suetonius, but is mentioned only by him.
 
1 - 204 AUGUSTUS, DIVUS, TEMPLUM.
A temple of the deified Augustus, built by Tiberius, or by Tiberius and Livia. Tacitus, however, says that Tiberius finished the temple, but for some reason did not dedicate it, agreeing in this with Dio . In this temple were statues of Augustus (see below) of Livia, set up by Claudius, and probably of other emperors who were deified (see below). It was destroyed by fire at some time before 79 A.D., but restored, probably by Domitian, who seems to have constructed in connection with it a shrine of his patron goddess, Minerva, regularly referred to in diplomata honestaemissionis after 90 A.D. which were fixa in muro post templum divi Augusti adMinervam (see TEMPLUM MINERVAE). A considerable restoration was carried out by Antoninus Pius, whose coins show an octastyle building with Corinthian capitals, and two statues, presumably of Augustus and Livia, in the cella. The last reference to the temple is on a diploma of 248, and it is not mentioned in the Regionary Catalogue. We are told of one painting in the temple, that of Hyacinthus by Nicias of Athens, which was placed there by Tiberius.

Everywhere in Latin literature this temple is called templum Augusti or divi Augusti, except in Martial and Suetonius, where it is templum novum, a name which was evidently given to the building at once, for it occurs in the Acta Arvalia from 36 A.D. on, as well as the variant templum divi Augusti novum. Once we find templum divi Augusti et divae Augustae. In 69 A.D. an aedes Caesarum was struck by lightning, and may perhaps be identified with this temple of Augustus. In connection with the temple Tiberius seems to have erected a library, BIBLIOTHECA TEMPLI NOVI or TEMPLI AUGUSTI (q.v.). Over this temple Caligula built his famous bridge to connect the Palatine and Capitoline hills, and its location is thereby indicated as somewhere on the north- west side of the Palatine, below the domus Tiberiana.

Of the construction of the original temple before the restoration by Antoninus, we know nothing from ancient sources other than coins. It has generally been supposed that a bronze coin of Caligula (37-40 A.D.) represents it, and was struck to commemorate its completion or dedication. This coin represents an Ionic hexastyle structure, decorated with sculptures on the roof, within the pediment, and in front, and with garlands. Recently, however, this identification has been attacked by Richmond who maintains that the temple of Caligula's coin is that of APOLLO PALATINUS (q.v.), while the temple of Augustus is represented on bronze coins of Tiberius of 34-36 A.D.. These show a hexastyle structure of the Corinthian order, with sculpture above the pediment, statues of Hercules and Mercury on pedestals beside the steps, a statue of Augustus in the cella, and around the back of the building a high curved wall-the murus post templum Augusti of the diplomata (see above).

Still more recently it has been maintained that the temple of Concord is represented on the coins of Tiberius, while that of Augustus is shown on those of Caligula.

The structure generally known as the temple of Augustus and the bibliotheca templi diviAugusti has recently been completely uncovered by the removal of the church of S. Maria Liberatrice. It is a large rectangular construction of brick-faced concrete, with very lofty and massive walls, and belongs to the period of Domitian. That it forms a single structural unit is shown very clearly by the unbroken lines of bonding courses of tiles which run right through it. It consists of:

(a) A large rectangular hall, with its main facade towards the vicus Tuscus; in front of it was a vestibule 6 metres deep and 32 wide, with a large niche at each end. The front wall of this vestibule has collapsed, and we have only the six (originally eight) short cross walls that were built to support it by Hadrian. The hall behind was about 25 metres deep, and in its walls were rectangular and semicircular niches, arranged alternately; above them the walls rose straight, with several rows of relieving niches, and no trace at all of any intermediate floor. The light came from a large rectangular window in the upper part of each side wall, (smaller windows seem to have been originally intended). How it was roofed is uncertain; if by a vault, it was the highest in antiquity, the key being 150 feet from the pavement. No fragments of the supposed vaulting have, however, been found.

(b) Two smaller halls behind the large hall, accessible by doors from the back of it,  but arranged on an axis parallel to its width and having their main entrance on this axis, i.e. from the north-east, behind the lacus Iuturnae. The first of these halls measures about 21 metres by 20, and its walls are decorated with niches. The second was a peristyle, with four brick piers at the angles, with grey granite columns between them, surrounding the central open court. At its south-west end were three rectangular rooms (the apse in the central one does not even belong to the earliest period of its decoration as a church), and behind them a solid wall, which, with the triangular space on the south-west side of the front hall, served to conceal the divergence of orientation with the HORREA AGRIPPIANA (q.v.). From each of these halls a door leads into the ramp ascending to the Palatine (see DOMUS TIBERIANA).

The church of S. Maria Antiqua was built into the two smaller halls before the sixth century A.D., and was redecorated in part in or about 649, 705, 74757, and 772. It was partially abandoned after the earthquake of Leo IV in 847, and the church of S. Maria Nuova (S. Francesca Romana) was founded to replace it: though the presence of a huge pillar in the centre of the piscina of the peristyle of Caligula shows that a last effort was made to support the falling vaulting; and Wilpert assigns some of the paintings in the front hall to the tenth century. In the thirteenth century the small basilica of S. Maria libera nos a poenis inferni was erected above the site of the older church.

In 1702 the upper part of the back wall of S. Maria Antiqua was brought to light, but covered up again; but the whole church has now been cleared.

The original purpose of the whole group has not yet been determined. Against the identification with the templum divi Augusti we may note (a) that no traces attributable to the original temple have so far been found below the level of the building of Domitian, and that there is indeed no room for any such structure, (b) that what lies before us does not agree with the representation on the coins of Antoninus Pius, which would of course show the portico added to the building by Hadrian (AJA 1924, 397). And if the front hall cannot be the temple of Augustus, it is hard to see how the hall behind it can be called the temple of Minerva, or how S. Maria Antiqua can be identified with the bibliotheca, even if the suitability of its plan be admitted. On the other hand, it is difficult-we may say impossible-to find any other place for the temple of Augustus, which, as we have seen, was still in existence in 248 A.D.

The theory that the whole group may have taken the place of the great peristyle which Caligula erected as a vestibule to the imperial palace on the Palatine above, and have been an imperial reception hall, is rendered improbable by the inadequacy of the approaches from the front hall to those at the back (S. Maria Antiqua); see DOMUS TIBERIANA.
 
1 - 205 AURA.
Mentioned only in the Regionary Catalogue, in Region IV, but preserved in certain mediaeval documents where it designates a locality behind the basilica of Constantine. It was probably a statue of the nymph Aura who was beloved of Dionysus, and threw herself into the Sangarius. For the Arcus Aurae, see FORUM NERVAE. For representations of Aura, see Mitt.
 
1 - 206 AURELII.
See MONUMENTUM AURELIORUM.
 
1 - 207 AUREUM BUCINUM.
An erroneous reading of one MS. of the Notitia, where we should read aura(m), bucinum with the Curiosum.
 
1 - 208 AVENTINUS MONS.
The southernmost of the hills of Rome, stretching south-east from the Tiber; it is trapezoidal in shape, with sides that measure, beginning with that towards the river, about 500, 600, 750, 600 metres in length. It rises abruptly from the bank of the river on the north and south-west. Its height near S. Alessio is 46 metres above sea-level. Along the south-east side of this trapezoidal hill is a depression, through which ran the ancient VICUS PORTAE RAUDUSCULANAE (q.v.), followed by the modern Viale di porta S. Paolo, and beyond this depression rises another elevation which gradually sloped off to the Almo beyond the;line of the Aurelian wall. This part of the hill, on which stand the churches of S. Saba and S. Balbina, is sometimes called the pseudo- Aventine (see below), but is usually included under the Aventine. The line of the 'Servian'  wall-crossed this eastern elevation south of S. Saba and west of S. Balbina, and thus included a section that was considerably smaller than the trapezoidal hill to the north-west.

Whether Aventinus originally included both these parts of the hill has been the subject of much discussion and cannot be regarded as settled. Enniusc seems to distinguish sharply between them, while later, in the last century of the republic and early empire, it is clear that the name was ordinarily applied to both. The probability is that the original name of the western section by the Tiber, following the analogy of other similar names, was gradually extended to the part of the eastern hill included within the Servian wall. This inclusion is strengthened by the statements of Dionysius who, in his description of the Aventine, gives its circumference once as eighteen stadia, and elsewhere as twelve. The latter figure is too small even for the western part, and must be considered as an error; the-former corresponds quite closely to that area enclosed within the line of the Servian wall on both hills, and evidently refers to that. In strictly official language Aventinus may always have remained the designation of the western half only. A fragment of the Acta Arvalia recently found, of 240 A.D., indicates clearly that then at any rate Aventinus maior, the main part of the hill, was distinguished from Aventinus minor, the part now called the pseudo-Aventine.

When names were given to the Augustan divisions of the city, the thirteenth was called Aventinus; while the twelfth, comprising the eastern part of the hill, was the Piscina Publica.

According to the traditional view the Aventine, although it was surrounded by the wall of Servius Tullius, remained outside the pomerium until the time of Claudius, and this exclusion was due to religious scruples connected with the founding of the city. Another explanation of this exclusion-is that the hill was not included within any wall until the Servian wall was rebuilt in the fourth century, and therefore was outside the pomerium.

The name Aventinus is still unexplained, in spite of the many etymologies offered by Roman antiquarians. The suggestion that the word represents an ancient Italian, or perhaps Ligurian, settlement may possibly find some support in the use of PAGUS AVENTINENSIS (q.v.). The statement of Festus is probably false.

According to tradition, the Aventine was public domain until 456 B.C. when, by the lex Icilia, a portion of it was handed over to the plebs for settlement. It continued to be an essentially plebeian quarter until the empire, when many wealthy Romans built their residences there, but it was always a comparatively unimportant part of the city and contained few monumental structures.
 
2 B.
2 - 1 BACCHUS, SACELLUM (LYAEUS LIBER, BACCHUS, TECTA).
a shrine of Bacchus which, together with one of Cybele (see MAGNA MATER, THOLUS), stood 'in summa Sacra via,' where the clivus Palatinus branched off to ascend the Palatine. In 1899 part of a marble epistyle, belonging to a circular structure about 3.9 metres in diameter, was found in front of the basilica of Constantine. On this is a fragmentary inscription recording a restoration by Antoninus Pius. A coin of that emperor represents a circular shrine with a statue of Bacchus within its colonnade, which probably records the same restoration
 
2 - 2 BALNEUM.
balneum, balnea, balneae, balineum, balinea, balineae-all these variants from the Greek βαλανεῖον are found, and were used without distinction, though originally, according to Varro, LL ix. 68, the plural was used only where there was one building for men and another for women. According to Reg. there were 856 in the city. Of the following that are known, almost all are called by the cognomen of the builder or owner.
 
2 - 3 BALNEUM ABASCANTI.
mentioned in Reg. in Region I. It was probably near the porta Capena, and possibly built by T. Flavius Abascantus, the freedman of Domitian.
 
2 - 4 BALNEA ALEXANDRI.
said to have been built by Alexander Severus in all those parts of the city that were not already supplied with them 
 
2 - 5 BALINEUM AMPELIDIS.
mentioned in Reg. in Region XIV. The name seems to occur also on a fragment (48) of the Marble Plan. It was probably near the MOLINAE (q.v.) on the line of the aqua Traiana.
 
2 - 6 BALINEUM ANTIOCHIANI.
mentioned only in Not. in Region I. It was probably near the porta Capena, and built perhaps by Flavius Antiochianus, consul in 270 A.D.
 
2 - 7 BALINEUM BOLANI.
mentioned only in Not. in Region I. It was perhaps built by M. Vettius Bolanus, consul some time before 69 A.D., whose interest in real estate and building is shown by the fact that he owned an insula in Trastevere, and restored a shrine to the Bona Dea
 
2 - 8 BALNEUM CAESARIS.
inscribed on a fragment (49) of the Marble Plan. These may possibly be the baths of the palace (balneum Palatii) in which Didius Julianus was murdered by Sept. Severus
 
2 - 9 BALNEUM CHARINI.
mentioned by Martial (vii. 3 as surprisingly good baths built by a notorious profligate
 
2 - 10 BALNEUM CLAUDIANUM.
inscribed on part of a marble epistyle (CIL vi. 29767) that was copied near S. Silvestro al Quirinale in the eighteenth centuryand again in a house near the site of the baths of Constantine. Other inscriptions relating to the patrician Claudii have been found in this vicinity, so that the baths were probably here
 
2 - 11 BALNEUM CLAUDII ETRUSCI.
mentioned by Statius, who describes it in silv. i. 5. Its situation is unknown; but as it was supplied by the Anio (Vetus or Novus) the aqua Marcia, and the aqua Virgo, it must have been situated in the campus Martius, or at any rate low enough to be within the range of distribution of the last-named aqueduct. Mart. vi. 42, who describes it as luxuriously fitted up, and decorated with coloured marbles, and in a very sunny situation.
 
2 - 12 BALINEUM COTINI.
a name found only on a fragment (5 of the Marble Plan.
 
2 - 13 BALNEUM CRISPINI.
mentioned only in Persius, with no indication of location.
 
2 - 14 BALINEUM DAFNIDIS.
mentioned in Reg. in Region IV. Whether this is to be identified with the privataebalneae quae Daphnes appellantur  is uncertain. For the form of the name cf. BALINEUM AMPELIDIS.
 
2 - 15 BALINEUM DIANES(AE).
mentioned in Reg. in Region XIV. The name was probably due to a statue or painting of Diana in the balnea or on the outside wall, and the building stood near the Molinae and aqua Traiana.
 
2 - 16 BALINEUM FAUSTI.
mentioned together with BALINEUM FORTUNATI by Martial. They were in the campus Martius, and seem to have been equipped in a very meagre way.
 
2 - 17 BALINEUM FORTUNATI.
mentioned together with BALINEUM FAUSTI by Martial. They were in the campus Martius, and seem to have been equipped in a very meagre way.
 
2 - 18 BALINEUM GERMANI.
Known only from its mention on one lead plate.
 
2 - 19 BALINEAE GORDIANI.
Erected by the Emperor Gordian in various parts of the city, in usum privatum exornatae.
 
2 - 20 BALINEUM GRATIARUM.

ΧΑΡΙΤΩΝ ΛΟΥΤΡΟΝ.

inscribed on a marble epistyle that was found in the ruins of a beautiful room discovered in 17between the baths of Caracalla and the city walls 
 
2 - 21 BALINEUM GRYLLI.
mentioned twice in Martial, and described as tenebrosum; probably situated in the campus Martius.
 
2 - 22 BALINEUM IULIORUM AKARIORUM.
on an inscription found near the pons Gratiani and known only from the Einsiedeln Itinerary
 
2 - 23 BALINEUM LUPI. see AEOLIA.
balnea belonging to a certain Lupus, which are mentioned only by Martial. The name was perhaps derived from a picture of the island of Aeolus on the wall of the baths, or from its draughts, and in the latter case it may be simply a joke.
 
2 - 24 BALINEUM MAMERTINI.
mentioned only in Reg. in Region I. These baths were probably near the porta Capena and may have been built by Sex. Petronius Mamertinus, praetorian prefect in 139-143 A.D. 
 
2 - 25 BALNEUM MERCURII.
mentioned in the Einsiedeln Itinerary, and possibly referred to in the templum Mercurii of the Mirabilia (I), as both balneum and templum are used in mediaeval documents for structures of various kinds. If there was a balneum Mercurii, it may have been near the AQUA MERCURII (q.v.) on the west slope of the Caelian
 
2 - 26 BALNEA NAERATII CEREALIS.
built by Naeratius Cerealis, consul in 358 A.D., and situated on the Esquiline, in the space now bounded by the Vie Cavour, Manin, Farini, and the Piazza Esquilino. Parts of the foundations and some architectural fragments were discovered in 1873. The house of Naeratius probably stood near the baths
 
2 - 27 BALNEAE PALATII. see BALNEUM CAESARIS.
inscribed on a fragment (49) of the Marble Plan. These may possibly be the baths of the palace (balneum Palatii) in which Didius Julianus was murdered by Sept. Severus
 
2 - 28 BALNEAE PALLACINAE. see PALLACINAE.
a name which occurs in classical literature only in Cicero and his scholia, in connection with balnea and vicus (pro Rose. Amer. 18: occiditur ad balneas Pallacinas de cenarediens Sex. Roscius; ib. 132: in vico Pallacinae, and schol. Gronov. ad loc., Or. p. 436: locus ubi cenaverat Sex. Roscius). Whether there was originally a district-Pallacinae- or not, is probable but not certain, and the testimony of early Christian literature is in favour of such a hypothesis; Inscr. Chr. i. p. 62: Antius lector dePallacine; cf. the church and cloister of S. Lorenzo in Pallacinis. In the eighth century a porticus Pallacinis is mentioned, of which possible fragments were found in the Via degli Astalli. In any case the district was near the north-east end of the circus Flaminius, and the vicus may have coincided in general with the Via di S. Marco
 
2 - 29 BALINEUM PHOEBI.
mentioned only in Juvenal, without any indication of location.
 
2 - 30 BALNEUM PLAUTI(A)NI. see LAVACRUM PLAUTI(A)NI.
baths of unknown location, mentioned only once 
 
2 - 31 BALNEUM POLYCLETI. see LUDUS AEMILIUS.
a training school for gladiators, which was flanked at least on one side by shops of workers in bronze. Its location is unknown, but it may possibly have been built by the Triumvir Lepidus, or his son. By the fourth century it had been transformed into a bath and was known as the balneum Polycleti. This name may have been given to the whole establishment from some sign representing the famous sculptor, that had been adopted by the bronze workers of the ludus, or it may have been that of the owner of the baths 
 
2 - 32 BALINEUM PRISCI.
mentioned only in Not. in Region XIV. It was probably near the MOLINAE (q.v.) and the aqua Traiana.
 
2 - 33 BALINEUM SCRIBONIOLUM.
located in Region  according to an inscription found at Grottaferrata 
 
2 - 34 BALNEAE SENIAE.
mentioned only by Cicero. There is no clue to its location.
 
2 - 35 BALNEAE SEVERI.
baths erected by Severus on the right bank of the Tiber the existence of which depends on an emendation of the text in Hist. Aug. Sev. 19. 5:
 
2 - 36 BALNEA STEPHANI.
mentioned twice by Martial. They were near his house on the Quirinal (see DOMUS MARTIALIS).
 
2 - 37 BALNEA SURAE. see THERMAE SURANAE.
baths on the Aventine in Region XIII, which were built by Licinius Sura, the fellow-countryman and friend of Trajan, or by Trajan himself and dedicated in the name of his friend. This establishment is represented on fragments of the Marble Plan, and its site is thereby identified with that of the modern restaurant of the Castello dei Cesari, just north of S. Prisca, where some remains have been found and a fragmentary inscription recording the restoration of a cella tepidaria by Caecina Decius Acinatius Albinus, praefectus urbi in 4A.D. A previous restoration by the third Gordian is proved by the discovery in 1920 in S. Sabina of part of a marble block, probably the architrave over a door, with a fragmentary inscription in which this restoration of the text seems justified, especially when compared with a passage from Hist. Aug. This Sura had a house on the Aventine, presumably close to the thermae, or perhaps converted into them by Trajan. The latter are not mentioned after the fourth century 
 
2 - 38 BALNEUM QUI COGNOMINATUR TEMPLUS (in vicum Longum). 
mentioned in LP among the buildings that fell into the possession of the basilica of SS. Gervasius and Protasius, which was dedicated under Innocent I (401-4A.D.). This basilica is now the church of S. Vitale
 
2 - 39 BALNEUM TIGELLINI.
mentioned by Martial, and perhaps belonging to the notorious favourite of Nero. The name occurs on a lead tessera, and in a Latin gloss. 
 
2 - 40 BALINEUM TORQUATI.
mentioned in Reg. in Region I., and probably in the-neighbourhood of the porta Capena.
 
2 - 41 BALINEUM VERULANUM.
inscribed on a marble cippus that was found between S. Maria Maggiore and S. Croce, in the Vigna Altieri near the tomb called Casa Tonda.
 
2 - 42 ΒΑΛΑΝΕΙΟΝ ΤΙΜΟΘΙΝΩΝ. see THERMAE NOVATI.
baths near S. Pudenziana which, although probably ancient, are mentioned only in the Acta S. Praxedis. Near them were probably the thermae Timothei, and to them may have belonged the fragment of an inscription found in S. Pudenziana.
 
2 - 43 BALINEUM VESPASIANI.
mentioned only in Reg. in Region l. with the BALNEUM TORQUATI.
 
2 - 44 BASILICA.
The name given by the Romans to a very common type of building erected for business purposes and also for the accommodation of the courts. It usually consisted of a rectangular hall, of considerable height, surrounded by one or two ambulatories, sometimes with galleries, and lighted by openings in the upper part of the side walls. The hall often ended in an apse or exedra. There were numerous variants in detail from this type, but the general effect was the same.

The recent discovery of the underground basilica just outside the Porta Maggiore has somewhat modified the views previously held; Here we have a building, undoubtedly pagan, belonging to the first century after Christ, which already shows, fully developed, the plan of the Christian basilica with a nave and two aisles, separated by pillars supporting arches. This basilica is not mentioned in classical literature, and was quite unexpectedly discovered in 1915. It was reached by a long subterranean passage, with two lightshafts, which led into a square vestibule with a larger shaft. The vestibule was decorated with painted stucco; and from it a window over the entrance door threw scanty light into the basilica itself, which was decorated entirely with reliefs in white stucco. The subjects are very varied, and have given rise to much discussion. The basilica can be inferred from them to have served for the meetings of a neo-Pythagorean sect which believed in a future life, as they can all be referred to the adventures of the soul in its passage towards the otherworld, the scene in the apse showing the actual plunge into the purifying flood. The worship was obviously secret: and the building was probably constructed in such a way as to excite as little attention as possible, the piers having been made by excavating pits, which were then filled with concrete. The vaults and arches were supported until the concrete had set on the solid earth (not on scaffolding) which accounts for their irregularity: and it was only afterwards that the earth was cleared out from beneath.
 
2 - 45 BASILICA AEMILIA BASILICA PAULI.
On the north side of the forum, between the curia and the temple of Faustina. In 179 B.C. the censor M. Fulvius Nobilior contracted for the building of a basilica 'post argentariasnovas' In 159 P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica, when censor, installed a water clock in basilica Aemilia et Fulvia. This use of the double name, Aemilia et Fulvia, would seem to indicate that it was thus given in Varro's source, and was a usual, perhaps the official, designation of the building in the middle of the second century B.C., and that it had not wholly dropped out of use in Varro's own time. If so, Fulvius' colleague in the censorship of 179, M. Aemilius Lepidus, must have had at least equal responsibility in its construction, notwithstanding Livy's statement, a hypothesis that is supported by references to the later history of the basilica. In 78 B.C., the consul M. Aemilius Lepidus decorated the building (here called basilica Aemilia) with engraved shields or portraits of his ancestors, and probably restored it somewhat; for a coin of his son Lepidus, triumvir monetalis about 65  represents it as a two-storied porticus on which shields are hung with the legend M. Lepidus ref(ecta) s(enatus) c(onsulto). In 55 B.C., the aedile L. Aemilius Paullus, brother of the triumvir, undertook to restore the basilica with money furnished by Caesar from Gaul. The theory that Paullus had almost finished the building, when he decided to rebuild entirely and gave out a new contract, does not seem correct. The beauty of this restored building is emphasised by Plutarch and Appian. Cicero says that Paullus used the ancient columns of the earlier structure. Nevertheless, he does not seem to have completed the work, for in 34 B.C. his son L. Aemilius Lepidus Paullus, when consul, finished and dedicated the building.

In all references to the basilica after 54 B.C., except those cited above from Varro, Pliny and Plutarch, it appears as basilica Paulli: regia Pauli), so that this, rather than basilica Aemilia, was probably its ordinary name.

In B.C. it was burned, and rebuilt in the name of the Aemilius who then represented the family (probably the same man who carried out the restoration of 22 A.D.), but really by Augustus and the friends of Paullus (Cass. Dio liv. 24). Still later, in 22 A.D., M. Aemilius Lepidus, son of the restorer of 34 B.C., asked the senate for permission to carry out another restoration at his own expense, according to Tacitus (Ann. iii. 72), who calls the building basilica Pauli Aemilia  monumenta. Pliny (NH xxxvi. 102), reckons it, the forum of Augustus and the temple of Peace, as the three most beautiful buildings in the world, and mentions its columns of Phrygian marble as very wonderful. These must have stood in the interior of the basilica, but we do not know to which restoration they belong, and no traces whatever of them have been found in the ruins; while those of the basilica of S. Paolo fuori le Mura are 1.metres in diameter, and therefore too large. After the first century the basilica is mentioned only on one inscription on a slave's collar, in the Regionary Catalogue, and in Polemius Silvius. It is represented in a fragment of the Marble Plan.

Dr. E. Van Deman has propounded a theory that the porticus Gai et Luci is to be identified with the front arcades of the basilica Aemilia; and ( that the name porticus Iulia though the MSS. If she is right in identifying the remains of the arch with some blocks of tufa on the north side of the temple of Caesar, the latter postulate is perhaps to be conceded; for the fornix Fabianus cannot have stood anywhere near the basilica Iulia. In that case Suet. Aug. 29 porticum basilicamque Gai et Luci must then refer to two separate monuments: for whatever the porticus may be, the basilica Gai et Luci must be the basilica Iulia. But the passage of Dio refers to a dedication in A.D., which will not fit the date of the inscription of Lucius Caesar (2 B.C., see p. 7 any more than it agrees with the date of the dedication of the porticus Liviae.

The remains of the basilica Aemilia, of which nothing was previously visible, have been for the most part laid bare by the recent excavations. It occupied the whole space between the temple of Faustina (from which it was separated by a narrow passage) and the Argiletum.

There are some remains, including a column base which probably belongs to the earliest period of the basilica, of the structures of 179, 78, and 34 B.C., or of 78 and 54 B.C., but it is clear that little change was made in the extent and plan of the basilica in the rebuildings of B.C. and 22 A.D.

It consisted of a main hall, divided into a nave and two aisles by two orders of columns of africano marble, respectively 0.85 metre and 0.55 metre in diameter, with bases and capitals   of white marble, and finely carved entablatures of the same material: two fragments of the main entablature, which show traces of later injury by fire, bear the remains of an inscription  ... PAVL ... RESTI... On the north-east side of the nave there was a second line of columns, but as it lies only about 4 feet from the outer wall, the intervening space cannot be treated as a second aisle. The object of this inequality may have been to give extra support, as there were probably no tabernae here. The pavement is of slabs of fine coloured marbles (giallo, cipollino, porta santa).

The main hall was about 90 metres long and 27 wide; it is most probable, though not certain, that it had no apsidal termination at either end. It was lighted by a clerestory, to which belong some pilasters of white marble, with beautiful acanthus decoration, which stood between the double windows.

Outside the south-west wall of the nave was a row of small chambers (tabernae), which, like it, were built of opus quadratum of tufa even in the reconstruction of B.C. (or 22 A.D.). In three of them (one in the centre and one near each end) were doors into the nave: the entire difference in plan from the basilica Iulia may be due to the desire to keep the heat out of the nave in summer. These chambers were vaulted in concrete, the vault springing from a slight projection in the stone block at the top of the side wall-an Augustan characteristic, noticeable also in the basilica Iulia, the horrea Agrippiana, the temple of Castor and Pollux, etc. A flight of stairs in the smaller chamber at each end led to the space above them which opened on to the upper arcade of the facade; and at the end of each of their side walls was a marble pilaster, corresponding to the pillars which supported the main arcade, which had fifteen arches. Most of the travertine foundation blocks of these pillars are preserved, though some have been extracted by mediaeval and Renaissance quarrying; but the white marble blocks of which they were composed have been removed-with a single exception, which is of special interest, inasmuch as it comes at the south angle of the building, and shows clearly that here there was a projecting porch of one intercolumniation. This porch bore three inscriptions, set up in 2 B.C. in honour of Augustus and his two grandsons by the plebs, the senate, and the equites: half of the first inscription is preserved  but not in situ, while the second lies as it fell when the building was destroyed by earthquake. These inscriptions, with which have been connected two bases also dedicated to Gaius and Lucius Caesar a year earlier, have been used as the basis of the identification of the front arcades of the basilica with the porticus Gai et Luci. Here lie other fragments, including some of the entablature of the upper order of the facade, with a cornice resembling that of the temple of Divus Iulius, but smaller. The massive main order was Doric, with bucrania and paterae alternating in the metopes, and fragments of it are preserved, though up to 1500 a portion of the north-west side facade (which faced originally on to the Argiletum, and owing to the direction of the latter, was not at right angles to the front) was standing, as various Renaissance drawings show, and the so-called Coner.

From the facade three narrow steps descended to a broad landing, from which four more steps led to the forum level. The shrine of VENUS CLOACINA (q.v.) was built at the foot of the steps, not far from the north-west end. The steps on the south-east side have recently been exposed at one point, which has rendered it possible to determine the length of the building.

At the beginning of the fifth century A.D. the wooden roofs of the nave and aisles were set on fire (perhaps in 410, when Alaric captured Rome) and numerous coins, from the time of Constantine to the end of the fourth century, were found on the marble pavement. Above the stratum of ashes is a layer, about 1 metre thick, of earth mixed with fragments of architecture, statues, bricks, pottery, etc.; and upon this stratum has fallen the brick wall which replaced the back wall of the tabernae after its destruction by fire. From this it is clear that the nave of the basilica was abandoned after the fire (from which, as the fragments show, the africano columns suffered especially) and was to a certain extent used as a quarry even in ancient times. Nor were the tabernae nor the facade rebuilt, though a large private building was established in the south-east portion; in some of the tabernae are marble pavements of the seventh-ninth century, and on the back wall of the last taberna but one, a fragment of an inscription, with the name of a saint, was found. The sixteen columns of red granite (Ill. 1 which stood on high 'white marble pedestals (none of which were found in situ) may have belonged to its portico. Certainly, the attribution of them to a restoration of the facade of the basilica in the fifth century must be given up. Nor, on the other hand, can they belong to the mediaeval church of S. Iohannes in Campo (HCh 270), which must have lain at a much higher level,

The final ruin of the whole, which caused the collapse of the brick wall at the back of the tabernae, may best be attributed to the earthquake of Leo IV in 847 A.D.

 
2 - 46 BASILICA ALEXANDRINA.
A building one hundred feet wide and one thousand long, that Alexander Severus planned to erect inter campum Martium  et Saepta Agrippiana. It was commenced but never built. The passage may have been made up from Cic.
 
2 - 47 BASILICA ANTONIARUM DUARUM.
Mentioned only in one inscription. These Antoniae may have been the daughters of Octavia and Antonius.
 
2 - 48 BASILICA ARGENTARIA.
Apparently the headquarters for the sale of vessels of bronze, mentioned only in Reg. in Region VIII, between the temple of Concord and the barracks of the Fifth Cohort of Vigiles. It was probably between the forum of Trajan and the east slope of the Capitoline hill, on the CLIVUS ARGENTARIUS (q.v.). In Reg. app. the basilica Vascellaria is mentioned, but not the Argentaria, and this, together with the fact that artificers in bronze were called argentarii vascularii on the inscriptions, make it possible that the same building is referred to under the two names
 
2 - 49 BASILICA CALABRA. see CURIA CALABRA.
A hall of assembly on the Capitoline hill, where, before the publication of the calendar, on the Kalends of each month the pontifex minor made a public announcement of the day on which the Nones would fall. The name was derived from calare, both because the pontifex called the people together (comitia calata), and because he called out the day of the Nones. As curia was regularly used in early times for halls where the representatives of the curiae, or the senate, assembled, it seems probable that originally this curia bore the same relation to the senate and comitia Calata that the curia Hostilia did to the senate and comitia Curiata. Festus (49) says that in the curia Calabra tantum ratio sacrorum gerebatur, and Macrobius that the pontifex minor sacrificed here to Juno on the Kalends of each month. It was near the casa Romuli, and appears in Lydus as Καλαβρὰβασιλική 
 
2 - 50 BASILICA CLAUDII.
Mentioned only in Pol. Silv., where it has been perhaps confused with aqua Claudii 
 
3 C.
3 - 1 CACA, SACELLUM
a shrine of Caca mentioned twice in extant literature. It is supposed to have stood on the south-west corner of the Palatine near the SCALAE CACI (q.v.), but no trace of it has been found. For a discussion of Caca and the topographical questions involved,
 
3 - 2 CACI SCALAE (SCALAE CACI.)
an ancient stairway on the south side of the Palatine, leading down to the valley of the circus Maximus. The top of it (supercilium) is named as the end of ROMA QUADRATA ( and as the site of the CASA ROMULI (q.v.). What the ATRIUM CACI (q.v.) has to do with it is uncertain. Probably the steps originally served as a short cut to the bottom of the clivus Victoriae, and the porta Romanula stood at their junction with it, rather than farther north, v. supra 376.

Tradition connected this corner with the story of the robber Cacus, but both he and his sister Caca were in reality ancient Italic fire deities. Of the steps themselves nothing certain is left. At the top the travertine foundations of a gate of the imperial period are in situ, together with a small piece of road pavement; a little lower down they turned at right angles and ran to the south-west corner of the hill; but here they have been built over by a house of the imperial period, and survive only in the form of an internal staircase. 
 
3 - 3 CACUM.
another name for the forum Boarium, if the reading of the Cosmographia is accepted. It may simply be an abbreviation of vicus Caci.
 
3 - 4 CAELIMONTIUM.
The name given to Region II in Reg., and in one inscription. It included the greater part of the Caelian hill and extended east to the Aurelian wall. This word, Caelimontium, is evidently analogous in formation to Septimontium, and may have been used as the name of the region because it included the hill, or the region may have been so called because Caelimontium was one of its principal streets. Some evidence for the latter hypothesis is found in the adjective Caelimontienses, although it has been suggested that this may mean those who dwelt in a street or quarter that was called Caelimontium, a restricted use of the latter term which has parallels.
 
3 - 5 CAELIMONTIENSES.
see above.
 
3 - 6 CAELIOLUS (CAELIOLUM).
a part of the Caelian hill, appearing as Caeliculus or Caeliculum in Cicero, and probably the Caelius minor of Martial. The vicus Capitis Africae, the modern via Claudia, seems to have divided the hill into two sections, and the smaller, eastern, section was presumably the Caeliolus. This is now marked by the church of SS. Quattro Coronati 
 
3 - 7 CAELIUS MONS.
The most south-easterly of the hills of Rome, stretching west from the eastern plateau, from its junction with the Esquiline near the Porta Maggiore, in an irregular tongue about 2 kilometres long and 400 to 500 metres wide. This tongue ends in two points, like pro- montories, an eastern, probably called CAELIOLUS (q.v.), where the church of the SS. Quattro Coronati now stands, and a western, the site of SS. Giovanni e Paolo. South of the Caelian is the valley traversed by the brook now called the Marrana, part of which was the VALLIS CAMENARUM (q.v.), and on the north it was separated from the Esquiline by the low ground that runs east from the Colosseum. Part of the northern side of the Caelian seems to have been called SUCUSA (q.v.), and this was probably just east of the Caeliolus. The height of the Caelian varies considerably, being 45 metres in the Villa Mattei and 54 in the Villa Wolkonsky.

The hill is said to have been called at first MONS QUERQUETULANUS (q.v.), from the oak groves that covered it, but this was perhaps an invention of the antiquarians to explain the PORTA QUERQUETULANA (q.v.) of the Servian wall. In the reign of Tiberius the senate voted to call the hill Augustus mons, but this name never came into general use. In the Regionary Catalogues the second region of the city is called CAELIMONTIUM (q.v.). Caelius itself was explained by the antiquarians as the name given to this hill in consequence of the settlement upon it of Caeles Vibenna and his Etruscan companions who came to the assistance of one of the Roman kings. It seems difficult to explain the existence of Caelius mons and Caelius, the name of a well-known plebeian gens, unless there be some connection between the two.

Tradition varies in ascribing the addition of the Caelius to the city to Romulus, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Marcius, Tar- quinius Priscus, and Servius Tullius, and is of course without value.

Both Caelius and Sucusa were included in the Septimontium. The later 'Servian' wall, following undoubtedly the original line, crossed the Caelius about 250 metres west of the present church of S. Giovanni in Laterano, and thus included the western half of the hill within the area of the city, a condition that probably went back to the regal period. Whether this hill ever had its own fortifications is still undecided.

In Augustus' division of the city, the Caelian fell into three regions- the western and southern slopes into Region I, the main portion into II, and the extreme eastern part into V. The hill was thickly populated during the republic, and we are told of an apartment house, belonging to Ti. Claudius Centumalus, which the owner was ordered to demolish because it was so high as to cut off the view of the augurs. In 27 A.D. the hill suffered severely from a fire, and afterwards became a favourite place for the residences of the rich, which, with their gardens, seem to have occupied a considerable part of the whole
 
3 - 8 CAESARES SEPTEM.
found on an inscription at Praeneste, but presumably indicating the district in Rome from which came a certain L. Domitius Agathemerus, a freedman of the pantomimist Paris, and a coactor argentarius . Another inscription found at Reate mentions a 'vinarius a septem Caesaribus.' The name is doubtless taken from a street or shop sign.
 
3 - 9 CALCARIENSES (VICUS PULVERARIUS).
a street somewhere in Region I. If pulvis here means pulvis Puteolanus, this street may have been named from the pozzolana beds outside the porta Appia. See SCHOLA CALCARIENSIUM.
 
3 - 10 CAMELLENSES.
found in the same inscriptions as CAELIMONTIENSES, and referring probably to some district on the Caelian
 
3 - 11 CAMENAE.
originally fountain deities, afterwards identified with the Muses, who gave their name to the place where their cult was located. Topographically, Camenae was a general term, including the valley, the grove, the spring, and the shrine. The spring was undoubtedly at the foot of the southern extremity of the Caelian hill, inside the boundaries of the Villa Mattei, but it is impossible to identify it certainly with any particular one of those that are now found in the immediate vicinity. The grove was around the spring, and the vallis extended north-east from this point along the south-east side of the Caelian, and was traversed by the vicus Camenarum, which joined the via Appia. This valley is now marked by the Via delle Mole and the Marrana brook. The spring was near the via Appia, and, according to tradition, Numa built beside it a small bronze aedicula, which, after having been struck by lightning and removed to the temple of Honos et Virtus, was again transferred by Fulvius Nobilior to the temple of Hercules which was then called aedes Herculis et Musarum. Later a temple appears to have taken its place, which is mentioned only once. The grotto of the spring had also been adorned with marble in Juvenal's time. Its water was excellent. See AQUA MERCURII.
 
3 - 12 CAMENARUM AEDES, AEDICULA (CAMENAE).
Only name known.
 
3 - 13 CAMPUS AGRIPPAE.
a section of the campus Martius laid out as a sort of park by Agrippa, and finished and dedicated by Augustus in 7 B.C.. It was a favourite promenade of the Romans extending from about the line of the aqua Virgo on the south at least as far as the present via S. Claudio on the north, and from the via Lata towards the slope of the Quirinal, although its boundaries on the east are uncertain. The PORTICUS VIPSANIA was built on the west side of the campus, along the via Lata.
 
3 - 14 CAMPUS BOARIUS.
found on one inscription and possibly on another, and probably another name for forum Boarium.
 
3 - 15 CAMPUS BRUTTIANUS.
mentioned in Reg. and Pol. Silv. 545 in Region XIV, but otherwise unknown.
 
3 - 16 CAMPUS CAELEMONTANUS.
Mentioned only in one inscription. From analogy with campus Esquilinus and campus Viminalis, this campus is probably to be located on the Caelian, outside the Servian wall and near the porta Caelimontana. It is possible that it may be identical with the CAMPUS MARTIALIS (q.v.).
 
3 - 17 CAMPUS CODETANUS (CODETA).
a district on the right bank of the Tiber, so called because of the myrtle ('mare's tail') which grew there (Fest. 58). A campus Codetanus is mentioned in Reg. in Region XIV, which is probably the same as the Codeta, but it cannot be located more definitely. It is possible that a fragmentary inscription from a terminal cippus may refer to this district. See NAUMACHIA AUGUSTI.
 
3 - 18 CAMPUS COHORTIUM PRAETORIARUM.
perhaps the official name of the open area, referred to merely as campus, which lay between the castra Praetoria and the Servian agger. In this area no remains have been found except those of altars, shrines, and dedicatory monuments, such as would naturally be erected on the soldiers' drill ground.
 
3 - 19 CAMPUS ESQUILINUS.
the name in use during the last period of the republic and early empire for that part of the Esquiline plateau that lay outside the porta Esquilina. What its exact limits were, either then or earlier, is not known, but it is said to have been situated north of the via Labicana, and it probably included part of the present Piazza Vittorio Emanuele and the district immediately north of it. It formed a part of what had been the early Esquiline necropolis, a place of burial for prominent Romans as well as for the poor, but it had been reclaimed at the beginning of the Augustan period and was used as a park. It is referred to as Agri novi by Prop. iv. 8. 2; cf. Hor. cit.: vetatque novis considere in hortis. Executions also took place here
 
3 - 20 CAMPUS FLAMINIUS.
found only in Varro, and explained by him as the site on which the circus Flaminius was built and from which that structure took its name. The circus was named of course from its builder, but we must admit, probably, that this part of the campus Martius had derived its name from some earlier member of the same family-a strange coincidence. Campus Flaminius was probably synonymous with prata Flaminia.
 
3 - 21 CAMPUS IOVIS.
mentioned only once, with no indication of its location. It has been suggested that it might have been in Region VII, near the NYMPHAEUM IOVIS of Reg., and that this may have been built by Diocletian, who assumed the cognomen of Iovius as a sign of his devotion to the cult of Jupiter. It is, however, more likely that it is a mere invention on the analogy of campus Martius.
 
3 - 22 CAMPUS IGNIFER (TARENTUM).
A section of the most westerly part of the campus Martius- in extremo Martio campo. Hot springs and other traces of volcanic action led to the belief that here was an entrance to the lower world, and to the establishment of the cult of Dis pater and Proserpina. The legend of the discovery of the altar of Dis twenty feet below the surface of the ground by a Sabine Valerius is given by Valerius Maximus. The Tarentum is usually mentioned in connection with the ludi saeculares, when sacrifices were offered to Dis. The usual and correct form is Tarentum, but Terentum occurs now and then with false etymologies. No explanation of the word Tarentum has yet been found. It has recently been maintained that the Tarentum must be sought much closer to the river, and that it must be a subterranean shrine, resembling the so-called mundus on the Palatine. But it would be difficult to point to any site in the Campus Martius where these two conditions would be fulfilled; there is no rock in which such a shrine could have been excavated, and it would have been liable to frequent inundations.
 
3 - 23 CAMPUS LANATARIUS.
Mentioned only in the Regionary Catalogue in Region XII. It was probably somewhere between the baths of Caracalla and the present church of S. Saba.
 
3 - 24 CAMPUS MARTIUS.
The level ground between the slopes of the Capitoline, the Quirinal, and the Pincian hills, and the Tiber. This term varied somewhat in its signification; for, while originally and in its widest sense it embraced all this district, other names for small sections seem to have come into use later. Thus as early as the fifth century B.C. the south portion of the plain was probably known as PRATA FLAMINIA, and campus Martius was the ordinary designation of what lay beyond. After Augustus had divided the city into fourteen regions, the name campus Martius was restricted to that portion of Region IX (circus Flaminius) which lay west of the via Lata, the modern Corso; and here again there seems to have been a further distinction, for a cippus found near the Pantheon indicates that the campus Martius of the time of Augustus was divided into two parts- the district between the cippus and the circus Flaminius, which had been more or less built over, and the open meadow to the north, the campus proper.

The campus Martius covered an area of about 250 hectares (600 acres), extending a little more than two kilometres north and south from the Capitoline to the porta Flaminia, and a little less than two kilometres east and west in its widest part, between the Quirinal and the river. It was low, from to metres above the level of the sea in antiquity (to 20 now), and from 3 to 8 above that of the Tiber, and of course subject to frequent inundations. It contained several swamps or ponds, as well as streams, the largest of which, the PETRONIA AMNIS (q.v.), which formed the limit of the city auspices came from a spring on the Quirinal, called the Cati fons, and flowed into the largest swamp, the palus Caprae or Capreae, where were afterwards the pool and baths of Agrippa. In the north-west part of the campus, near the great bend in the river, there were hot springs, probably sulphurous, and other traces of volcanic action. Some small part at least was wooded, for we know of two groves, AESCULETUMand LUCUS PETELINUS (qq.v.).

The campus Martius, frequently called campus alone, derived its name from the cult of Mars, or from the fact that it was consecrated to Mars. According to one form of the tradition it was private property of the Tarquins, and after their expulsion became state land, and was dedicated to Mars; according to another, it had been consecrated to Mars at an earlier period and afterwards appropriated by Tarquin. This view is supported by the existence of an ARA MARTIS (q.v.), situated probably east of the Pantheon in the Via del Seminario, which, according to Festus, was mentioned in a law of Numa and therefore dated from the early regal period. The note of Servius may be reconciled with either form of this tradition, but the first was probably the more generally accepted.

Another tradition concerning the public ownership of part or all of this district is apparently embodied in certain references to the gift of a CAMPUS TIBERINUS (q.v.) or Martius to the state by a Vestal virgin, Gaia Taracia or Fufetia.

At any rate the campus belonged to the state from the beginning of the republic, and we are told that Sulla, under the financial pressure of the impending war with Mithridates, was the first to sell any part of this public domain to private owners, although the name prata Flaminia seems to indicate some private ownership at a very early date. It is probable, however, that these prata had become public property but retained their original name. There are further indications of the encroachment by individuals on the boundaries of the campus in the first or possibly the second century B.C., such as the suburb called AEMILIANA (q.v.), just outside the porta Carmentalis, and perhaps a villa and gardens of the elder Scipio. Private houses did not begin to multiply to any extent before the time of the empire, but they became fairly numerous, for the Regionary Catalogue lists 2777 insulae and 140 domus in Region IX.

From the beginning the campus Martius was used as pasture for sheep and horses; was cultivated for grain; and furnished space for the athletic and military exercises of the Roman youth. It was entirely outside the pomerium during the republic and probably remained so down to the reign of Claudius (see POMERIUM). By the time of Hadrian the pomerium had been extended to include the prata Flaminia, but the campus Martius in its narrower sense was not included until the wall of Aurelian was built. Because it was public property and outside the pomerium, the campus was used as the place of assembly for the citizens, in their military capacity as an army and in their civil capacity as the comitia centuriata. The enclosed space in which this comitia voted came to be known as ovile or saepta. Audience was given here to foreign ambassadors who could not enter the city, and foreign cults were domiciled in temples erected here.

We know certainly of only three other cult centres besides that of Mars in the campus Martius before the Punic wars-the ara Ditis et Proserpinae in Tarento, the Apollinare, an altar or grove, and the temple of Apollo which was built in 431 B.C., and the temple of Bellona built in 296 B.C. Between 231 and the battle of Actium at least fifteen other temples were erected, and more during the next century. The construction of the circus Flaminius in 221 B.C. marked an epoch in the history of the southern part of the campus, but there was no public building of any note in the campus Martius proper before the end of the republic, when Pompeius built the first stone theatre in Rome in 55 B.C. Caesar conceived the idea of changing the course of the Tiber by digging a new channel on the west of the Janiculum, and of building over all the plain between that hill and those on the east side of the city. The river bed was not changed; but Augustus and his coadjutors began the construction of all kinds of public buildings, with the result that, by the time of the Antonines, all of this district except the north-west section, which was still kept open, was covered with many of the most wonderful structures in Rome, circuses, theatres, porticoes, baths, columns, obelisks, mausolea, temples, etc. The remarkable appearance of the campus even before the death of Augustus is described by Strabo in a well-known passage, where, however, the traditional text requires rearrangement.

There is some doubt as to whether the murder of Valentinian III in 455 A.D. occurred in the Campus Martius proper, or in the campus Martius, or drill ground attached to the imperial villa 'ad duas lauros,' beyond the third milestone of the via Labicana. In the former case, we should have to suppose the existence in the fifth century A.D. of another locality in the campus Martius, bearing the same name 'ad duas lauros,' and the latter appears to be preferable.

With the decline of the city after the barbarian invasions, the rapidly dwindling population gradually abandoned the surrounding hills and was concentrated in the campus Martius, which contained the main part of Rome until the new developments in the nineteenth century.
 
3 - 25 CAMPUS MARTIALIS.
an open area on the Caelian hill, where the festival of the Equirria was celebrated when the campus Martius was under water. It was probably just outside the Servian wall, and perhaps identical with the campus Caelemontanus. Its name may have been preserved by the mediaeval church of S. Gregorio in Martio.
 
3 - 26 CAMPUS MINOR.
Mentioned only in Catullus. Its location is entirely unknown, although it has been identified with the a)/llo pedi/on of Strabo, and with the campus Martialis. See CAMPUS AGRIPPAE.
 
3 - 27 CAMPUS NERONIS.
A name found, together with the synonymous prata Neronis, in documents of the seventh to eleventh centuries inclusive, and evidently identical with the pedi/on *ne/rwnos of Procopius. It was the district on the right bank of the Tiber where Nero's NAUMACHIA (q.v.) and afterwards the moles Hadriani were situated.
 
3 - 28 CAMPUS OCTAVIUS.
Mentioned only in Reg. app. and Pol. Silv. 545, and otherwise entirely unknown.
 
3 - 29 CAMPUS PECUARIUS.
Mentioned in Reg. app. and on one inscription. It was perhaps in or near the campus Boarius.

It is often thought to have been near the Emporium and Horrea. On the other hand, the sepulchral inscription, which that of a 'negotiator celeberrimus suariae et pecuariae,' might point to a site near the FORUM SUARIUM. 
 
3 - 30 CAMPUS SCELERATUS.
An open area just inside the porta Collina and south of the vicus portae Collinae, where Vestal virgins who had broken their vows were buried alive.
 
3 - 31 CAMPUS TIBERINUS.
another name for the CAMPUS MARTIUS (q.v.) according to Gellius (vii. 7. , who, with Pliny, relates the story of its presentation to the people by a Vestal, Gaia Taracia or Fufetia. It has also been explained as that part of the campus Martius that borders the river from the island northward and identified with the CAMPUS MINOR (q.v.) of Catullus, and the ἄλλο  of Strabo
 
3 - 32 CAMPUS VATICANUS (VATICANUS).
 
 
3 - 33 CAMPUS VIMINALIS.
found only in Reg. in Region V, where it is followed by the word subager. This may be equivalent to sub aggere and belong to campus Viminalis (and in this case it may be contrasted with super aggerem; see AGGER), or it may conceal the name of another monument or locality. In any case the campus Viminalis was probably outside the agger and not far from the porta Viminalis
 
3 - 34 CANALIS.
the channel of the CLOACA MAXIMA (q.v.) in the forum before it was covered over 
 
3 - 35 CAPITA BUBULA, AD.
the birthplace of Augustus on the Palatine near the CURIAE VETERES, and therefore probably on the north-east-which probably took its name from some monument or building decorated with bulls' heads. See VICUS BUBLARIUS.
 
3 - 36 CAPITOLINUS MONS.
The smallest of the hills of Rome, with a length of about 460 metres and an average width of 180, lying between the forum and the campus Martius and extending in a general north- east-south- west direction. It was surrounded by steep cliffs on all sides except the south-east, where it was accessible from the forum valley, and was composed of three distinct parts, the elevations at the north and south ends and the depression between them. The present height of the north sumqit at the church of S. Maria in Aracoeli is 39 metres above the mean level of the Tiber; that of the south summit, the Via di Monte Tarpeo, 38 metres; and that of the Piazza del Campidoglio, 30 metres.

In the earliest period the north elevation seems to have belonged to the Sabine settlement on the Quirinal. Possibly the south portion came into possession of the Palatine Romans, but at any rate the whole hill became part of the enlarged city at the stage known as the City of the Four Regions, when the Romans and Sabines had united, although it was not included in one of the regions themselves. This seems to have indicated that it belonged to the community as a whole. Originally the north summit-and presumably the south-was fortified in the usual way by escarpments and breastwork where the cliff was steep, and elsewhere by tufa walls, some traces of which have been found. When the Palatine and Sabine settlements were united, the wall of the enlarged city included the whole hill and ran along its north-east side, the line of the later so-called MURUS SERVII TULLII (q.v.). Traces of the latter have been found at some points.

On the north elevation was the ARX (q.v.), or citadel, and on the south Tarquin established the worship of the triad of great gods-Jupiter, Juno and Minerva-thereby marking this point as the religious centre of the community. To it was given the name Capitolium, which the Roman antiquarians explained by a story that in digging for the foundations of the great temple of Jupiter, the workmen found a human skull of great size which was regarded as prophetic of the future greatness of the city. Capitolium, therefore, was originally the proper designation of this part of the hill, and continued to be so used. The official designation of the hill was Arx et Capitolium or Capitolium et Arx with variations, which indicated its double nature and continued in use down to the end of the republic, although the increasing importance of the Capitolium and the decreasing necessity for a citadel led to the gradual application of the term Capitolium to the entire hill. On the other hand, the word Capitolium was also employed to designate simply the temple of Jupiter itself, as the most significant part of the whole. The adjective Capitolinus was of course derived from the noun, and mons Capitolinus became a common name for the whole hill; collis Capitolinus. The depression between the two summits was called INTER DUOS LUCOS (q.v.) or ASYLUM (q.v.), the latter name being explained by the story that Romulus welcomed here the refugees from other towns. The precipitous cliff at the south-west corner of the Capitolium, from which criminals convicted of capital offences were hurled, was known from early times as saxum Tarpeium or rupes Tarpeia, and both the whole hill and its southern part were called TARPEIUS MONS (q.v.), but the statement of the Roman antiquarians that this was the original name of the hill is false. It was also called Saturnius.

The principal approach to both summits of this hill was the CLIVUS CAPITOLINUS(q.v.), originally a path leading from the forum to the depression between the summits, where it divided; but the erection of the TABULARIUM (q.v.) at the end of the republic, and of the mediaeval buildings, destroyed all traces of earlier conditions on the ridge between the elevations. There were also two flights of steps, the CENTUM GRADUS and (perhaps) the GRADUS MONETAE (qq.v.), which led to the top of the hill from the forum side.

The Capitolium proper, or south summit, was occupied by the most famous of all Roman temples, that of IUPPITER OPTIMUS MAXIMUS CAPITOLINUS (q.v.), and the AREA CAPITOLINA (q.v.) or space in which this temple and others stood; while on the north summit were the Arx and temple of IUNO MONETA (q.v.).

During the first centuries of the republic, private dwellings were erected to some extent on the hill, for in the year 390 B.C. there was a guild of those who dwelt in Capitolioatque arce; and after the treason of Manlius, a law was passed which forbade any patrician to live on either summit. In spite of such prohibitions, the gradual destruction of the fortifications and the demands of a rapidly increasing population led to continual encroachments upon this quasi- sacred hill. In 93 B.C. a considerable tract, which had belonged to the priests, was sold and came into private possession. By the middle of the first century the whole hill, with the exception of the area Capitolina, the actual sites of the temples, and the steepest parts of the slopes, was occupied by private houses. Remains of these houses have been found on the Arx near the church of S. Maria in Aracoeli, and at the foot of the stairway leading from the Piazza d'Aracoeli to the church.
 
3 - 37 CAPITOLIUM.
see CAPITOLINUS MONS and AEDES IOVIS OPT. MAX. CAPITOLINI.
 
3 - 38 CAPITOLIUM VETUS.
The name given in historical times to a shrine of the Capitoline triad, Juppiter, Juno, and Minerva, on the Quirinal, which was older than that on the Capitoline. It stood on the northern edge of the hill, just north-west of the present Ministero della Guerra, where dedicatory inscriptions belonging to it have been found.
 
3 - 39 CAPRALIA.
Apparently a popular designation for the district around the Caprae palus.
 
3 - 40 CAPRAE PALUS.
The pool or swamp in the campus Martius where Romulus is said to have been snatched from the sight of the Romans and carried up to heaven. It is called Αἰγὸς  by Greek writers, and probably extended from the lowest part of the campus Martius, the site of the Pantheon, towards the Tiber, although its actual limits cannot now be determined, and it should perhaps be placed nearer the AEDICULA CAPRARIA and VICUS CAPRARIUS. De Rossi's attempt to place it near the via Nomentana is certainly mistaken.
 
3 - 41 CAPUT AFRICAE.
Probably an institution (paedagogium) for the training of imperial pages, mentioned in Reg. in Region II and on several inscriptions, that may have been named from some monument belonging to it or in the immediate neighbourhood. It is quite probable that there was also a street named from it, the vicus Capitis Africae, running probably from the south-east end of the Colosseum to the Macellum Magnum, the present church of S. Stefano Rotondo, along the east side of the temple of Claudius. The name was preserved by the churches of S. Agatha and S. Stephanus in caput Africae, the latter of which existed till the fifteenth century
 
3 - 42 CAPUT GORGONIS.
Mentioned only in the Regionary Catalogue in Region XIV. It is possible that it was the name of a street leading from the river to the ancient grove and shrine of Furrina (q.v.). We may note that Plutarch calls the grove ἄλσος.
 
3 - 43 CAPUT TAURI.
see FORUM TAURI.
 
3 - 44 CARCER.
The ancient state prison of Rome, situated between the temple of Concord and the curia at the foot of the Capitol. It was used simply as a place of detention, and not of penal servitude, though executions also took place here. The subterranean part was called Tullianum. The name is by Varro and Festus derived from Servius Tullius, who was the builder of this portion of the carcer : while Livy attributes the construction of the carcer to Ancus Martius. Sallust describes it in a well-known passage: in carcere locus quod Tullianumappellatur, ubi paullulum  ascenderis ad laevam, circa duodecim  pedes humi depressus. Eum muniunt undique parietes atque insuper camera lapideis fornicibus iuncta, sedincultu, tenebris, odore foeda atque terribilis eius facies est.

This lower chamber of the building is subterranean and was originally accessible only by a hole in the roof. It is nearly 7 metres in diameter: in the walls only three courses of stone are visible, and it is thus less than 6 feet high: but three more courses may still be hidden by the present floor, and this would give the feet of which Sallust speaks. The building was, according to one theory, in origin a cupola grave, like those of Mycenae: while others think that it served as a water reservoir, and derive the name Tullianum from tullus, a spring. A small spring does indeed still rise in the floor; and the absence of incrustation, used as an argument against the second hypothesis, has little weight, as the water is not calcareous.

It has generally been believed that the cupola was cut by the constructors of the upper chamber; Tenney Frank now supposes, without sufficient reason, that the lower chamber originally had a flat wooden roof, which later served as a scaffolding for the flat stone vault, which dates from after 100 B.C. But the holes to which he points in support of this theory may just as well have been cut for this scaffolding. There is little doubt that the chamber was originally circular. 

Most authorities attribute to it a high antiquity: but Frank assigns the lower chamber to the third century B.C. owing to the use of peperino and the regularity of the blocks, uniformly 56 cm. high: while the date of the drain leading into the forum appears to be debateable.

The upper room is a vaulted trapezoid, the sides varying in length from 5 to 3.60 metres. This Frank assigns to about 100 B.C. on similar grounds; and the vault of the lower chamber, as we have seen, to a slightly later date.

A new facade of travertine was added by C. Vibius Rufinus and M. Cocceius Nerva, consules suffecti, perhaps in 22 A.D., but, it may be, a good deal later. It was still used as a prison in 368 A.D., so that the tradition that it was converted into an oratory in the fourth century is without foundation; and the fons S. Petri, ubi est carcer eius of Eins., cannot have been here.

The name Mamertinus is post-classical.

The building near the Regia, mis-called Carcer by Boni, is a series of cellars, and may belong to about 70-40 B.C. 
 
3 - 45 CARINAE.
The western end of the southern spur of the Esquiline hill, including the slope to the valley of the Subura on the north and that of the Colosseum on the south, and corresponding to the district between the present church of S. Pietro in Vincoli and the Via del Colosseo. This was the Fagutal of earlier times, but this name seems to have been displaced by Carinae, which Servius says was derived from certain buildings erected near the temple of Tellus that resembled the keels of ships. It was crossed by the murus terreus, which was probably a remnant of pre-Servian fortification. The most conspicuous monument on the Carinae was the temple of TELLUS (q.v.), but during the republic many prominent Romans dwelt here and Florus calls it celeberrima pars urbis.
 
3 - 46 CARMALUS.
see CERMALUS.
 
3 - 47 CARMENTIS.
A shrine of Carmentis (or Carmenta), originally a fountain nymph, to whom were afterwards attributed functions of prophecy and assistance in child-birth. The shrine was at the foot of the Capitoline hill, near the PORTA CARMENTALIS (q.v.), which was named from the shrine, and probably within the limits of the forum Holitorium. Once it is referred to as sacellum. Ovid (Fast. i. 633-636） and Servius (Aen. viii. 336) explain these two Carmentes Postverta and Prorsa (under the form Porrima) as sisters or companions of the Arcadian goddess, Evander's mother, who derived their names from the knowledge of the past and power to foretell the future, and it may be that besides the original altar of Carmenta other altars were erected in process of time to Postverta and Prorsa representing either other aspects of Carmenta herself or her companions. In this way the use of varying terms to designate their shrine might be explained. For Carmenta and this question of terminology,
 
3 - 48 CASA ROMULI.
The house of Romulus on the south-west corner of the Palatine hill, near the top of the scalae Caci, represented by a hut of straw with a thatched roof, that was regarded with great veneration and restored, whenever injured by fire, in the same style. No exact identification with any existing remains is possible. It was perhaps the same as the tugurium Faustuli that is mentioned once, and was preserved at least to the fourth century. An ' aedes Romuli ' occurs in the list of the Argei, which evidently stood in some relation to the casa, and it has been conjectured that the casa may have stood within the aedes. Another casa Romuli, probably a replica of the first, stood on the Capitoline hill, perhaps in the area Capitolina, but we know nothing of this after the year 78 A.D.
 
3 - 49 CASTOR, AEDES.
A temple of Castor (or the Dioscuri ?) in circo Flaminio, that is, in Region IX, to which there are but two references. Its day of dedication was 13th August, and it is cited by Vitruvius as an example of an unusual type, like a temple of Athene on the Acropolis at Athens, and another at Sunium 
 
3 - 50 CASTOR, AEDES, TEMPLUM.
The temple of Castor and Pollux at the south- east corner of the forum area, close to the fons Iuturnae. According to tradition, it was vowed in 499 B.C. by the dictator Postumius, when the Dioscuri appeared on this spot after the battle of Lake Regillus, and dedicated in 484 by the son of the dictator who was appointed duumvir for this purpose. The day of dedication is given in the calendar as 27th January, but by Livy as 15th July. The later may be merely an error, or the date of the first temple only.

Its official name was aedes Castoris, but we also find aedes Castorum, and Castoris et Pollucis, forms due either to vulgar usage or misplaced learning. Besides aedes, templum is found in Cicero, Livy once, Asconius, the Scholia to Juvenal, the Notitia and Chronograph. In Greek writers it appears as τὸ.

This temple was restored in 1B.C. by L. Caecilius Metellus. Some repairs were made by Verres. Caligula incorporated the temple in his palace, making it the vestibule, but this condition was changed by Claudius. Another restoration is attributed to Domitian, and in this source the temple is called templum. Castoris et Minervae, a name also found in the Notitia, and variously explained (see MINERVA, TEMPLUM). It had also been supposed that there was restoration by Trajan or Hadrian, and that the existing remains of columns and entablature date from that period, but there is no evidence for this assumption, and the view has now been abandoned. The existing remains are mostly of the Augustan period, and any later restorations must have been so superficial as to leave no traces.

This temple served frequently as a meeting-place for the senate, and played a conspicuous role in the political struggles that centred in the forum, its steps forming a sort of second Rostra. In it were kept the standards of weights and measures, and the chambers in the podium (see below) seem to have served as safe deposit vaults for the imperial fiscus, and for the treasures of private individuals. No mention is made of the contents of this temple, artistic or historical, except of one bronze tablet which was a memorial of the granting of citizenship to the Equites Campani in 340 B.C. (Liv. viii. II. 16).

The traces of the earlier structures indicate successive enlargements with some changes in the plan of cella and pronaos. The Augustan temple was Corinthian, octastyle and peripteral, with eleven columns on each side, and a double row on each side of the pronaos. This pronaos was 9.90 metres by 15.80, the cella by 19.70, and the whole building about 50 metres long by 30 wide. The floor was about 7 metres above the Sacra via. The very lofty podium consisted of a concrete core enclosed in tufa walls, from which projected short spur walls. On these stood the columns, but directly beneath them at the points of heaviest pressure travertine was substituted for tufa. Between these spur walls were chambers in the podium, opening outward and closed by metal doors. From the pronaos a flight of eleven steps, extending nearly across the whole width of the temple, led down to a wide platform, 3.66 metres above the area in front. This was provided with a railing and formed a high and safe place from which to address the people. From the frequent references in literature (see above) it is evident that there was a similar arrangement in the earlier temple of Metellus. Leading from this platform to the ground were two narrow staircases, at the ends and not in front. The podium was covered with marble and decorated with two cornices, one at the top and another just above the metal doors of the strong chambers. Of the superstructure three columns on the east side are standing, which are regarded as perhaps the finest architectural remains in Rome. They are of white marble, fluted, 12.50 metres in height and 1.45 in diameter. The entablature, 3.75 metres high, has a plain frieze and an admirable worked cornice.

This temple was standing in the fourth century, but nothing is known of its subsequent history, except that in the fifteenth century only three columns were visible, for the street running by them was called via Trium Columnarum. In the early nineteenth century it was often wrongly called the Graecostasis or the temple of Jupiter Stator.
 
3 - 51 CASTRA EQUITUM SINGULARIUM.
The barracks of the equites singulares, a select corps of cavalry organised about the end of the first century as a bodyguard for the emperor. Some remains of these barracks were found in 1885 in the Via Tasso, just north-west of the Scala Santa, consisting principally of the wall of a large rectangular court, in which were niches and in front of the niches inscribed pedestals
 
3 - 52 CASTRA FONT(ANORUM).
An uncertain reading of an inscription known only from Gudius, and of unknown provenience.
 
3 - 53 CASTRA LECTICARIORUM.
Mentioned only in Reg. in Region XIV and in the Breviarium, otherwise unknown.
 
3 - 54 CASTRA MISENATIUM.
Barracks occupied by sailors from the imperial fleet stationed at Misenum, who were detailed for service in the city, especially in the Colosseum and naumachiae. These barracks were between the thermae Traianae and the via Labicana, where inscriptions relating to them have been found. The name occurs on a fragment of the Marble Plan, and in the Regionary Catalogue in Region II.

It is uncertain whether we should assign to them a long row of small chambers in brickwork of the same size and plan which runs along the north side of the via Labicana between the thermae of Titus and the church of S. Clemente. Numerous concrete foundation walls were cut in making a drain from S. Clemente to the Colosseum in 1912-1914, when the mithraeum and the house under the church were successfully freed from water
 
3 - 55 CASTRA PEREGRINA.
On the Caelian hill, the barracks of the peregrini, soldiers detached for special service in Rome from the provincial armies. They consisted principally of the frumentarii, who were originally employed on supply service, but also used as military couriers, and in the second and third centuries as a sort of special police. Certain inscriptions relating to these barracks had long ago been found near S. Maria in Navicella, and they were located by Hulsen and by Lanciani further to the north; but the ruins of a part of the castra and several inscriptions connected with them were found in 1905 under the Convent of the Little Company of Mary, just south-east of S. Stefano Rotondo. It now becomes improbable that the inscription ANTONINIANA, (q.v.) can be restored as CASTRA ANTONINIANA.

Within the castra was a shrine (templum) of Juppiter Redux erected in honour of Severus and Mammaea by a centurio frumentarius
 
3 - 56 CASTRA PRAETORIA.
The barracks of the praetorian guard, built by Tiberius at the instigation of Sejanus in 21-23 A.D. when these troops were quartered permanently within the city. They were in the extreme north- eastern part of Rome, just beyond the inhabited district, about 500 metres east of the agger, on a site that was one of the highest in Rome (59-60 metres above sea-level), and commanded both the city and the roads leading to the east and north-east. The camp was constructed on the usual Roman model, forming a rectangle 440 metres long and 380 wide, with rounded corners. The longer axis, the cardo maximus, ran nearly north and south, and at its ends, in the middle of the shorter sides, were the porta praetoria and the porta decumana. It is not certain, however, whether the porta praetoria was on the north side or the south. The cardo maximus did not divide the castra equally, and the gates at its ends, porta principalis dextra on the west and porta principalis sinistra on the east, were 190 metres from the north side and 250 from the south.

The original walls of Tiberius are of brick-faced concrete, 4.73 metres high where they are still preserved (see below), and had battlements and turreted gates. On the inside of the wall were rows of vaulted chambers occupied by soldiers, some of which, on the north and east sides, are still visible. They were 3 metres high, of opus reticulatum lined with stucco, and above them ran a paved walk for the guards. A view of the principia is perhaps to be found on one of the 'Aurelian' panels of the Arch of Constantine. As would be expected from the importance of the praetorian guard, the castra are mentioned frequently in the literature of the empire and in inscriptions, especially those on lead pipes, which show the care expended by successive emperors on the water supply of the barracks.

Two interesting coin types of Claudius represent on the reverses his reception in the praetorian camp after the murder of Caligula: the legends are respectively imper(ator) recept(us), which is shown in the type with a soldier on guard, and praetor(ianus) recept(us) (i.e. infidem), i.e. the acceptance by Claudius of the fealty of the praetorians-an idea well symbolised by the clasping of hands.

The regular name of the barracks was castra praetoria, but they seem also to have been called vulgarly castrum praetorium and castrae praetoriae; and in the Middle Ages castra custodiae. The cohortes urbanae were also quartered here before the construction of the Castra Urbana.

Aurelian incorporated the castra in his line of fortification, which joined the castra at the north-west corner and again near the middle of the south side. The north and east wall of the castra thus formed the continuation of the Aurelian wall, and its original height was increased by an addition of 2.5 to 3 metres at the top and by digging away the soil about its foundations to a depth of 2.3 metres. The original wall can be distinguished from that of Aurelian by the difference in brickwork and by the outline of the battlements. The gates on the north and east sides were also walled up by Maxentius. In 3Constantine disbanded the praetorian guard and dismantled their barracks, presumably by destroying the inner walls that had not been used by Aurelian, although a part of the west wall is reported as standing in the sixteenth century.

Within the castra was the shrine of the standards of the guard, a tribunal, on which these standards were set up, restored by the statores attached to the barracks, a shrine of Mars, and an armamentarium, or imperial armoury, mentioned twice by Tacitus and in two inscriptions.

In the north part of the castra, east of the north gate, was an altar of Fortuna Restitutrix, of which the remains were found in 1888 in a room paved with black and white mosaic. Certain antiquarians of the sixteenth and fifteenth centuries speak of an arcus Gordiani near the porta Chius, and this has been connected by some with architectural fragments found in the via Gaeta and the viale Castro Pretorio. One or more such arches may very probably have stood in or near the castra, but there is no evidence of an arch of Gordian, or that the fragments discovered belonged to that arch mentioned in the Renaissance.

 
3 - 57 CASTRA RAVENNATIUM.
Mentioned only in the Breviarium of the Regionary Catalogue, and in the Mirabilia, where they are said to have been on the right bank of the Tiber. These barracks evidently were for the use of sailors from the imperial fleet at Ravenna, who were detailed for special duty in the city. (Cf. CASTRA MISENATIUM.) The name was preserved in that of the church of S. Stephanus Rapignani near S. Crisogono
 
3 - 58 CASTRA SILICARIORUM.

CASTRA TABELLARIORUM

CASTRA VICTIMARIORUM

Mentioned only in the Breviarium of the Regionary Catalogue. Their location is unknown, but like the castra Lecticariorum they were evidently the headquarters of special corps whose functions are indicated by their names.
 
3 - 59 CASTRA (URBANA).
Barracks constructed by Aurelian in campo Agrippae, and spoken of in connection with his temple of Sol. Although urbana is not found in either source, it is probable that these castra were those of the cohortes urbanae, previously quartered in the castra Praetoria. They were probably close to the FORUM SUARIUM (q.v.), somewhat north of the campus Agrippae, and just east of the temple of Sol.
 
3 - 60 CATABULUM.
Probably a sort of warehouse and depot on the via Lata, opposite the Saepta and near the church of S. Marcello, which was a station of the cursus publicus, and where certain goods subject to import duty were received and unpacked
 
3 - 61 CATI FONS.
A spring on the western slope of the Quirinal, near the porta Salutaris, from which the Petronia amnis flowed down into Caprae palus. It took its name from a certain Catus, and is perhaps the present Acqua di S. Felice, which rises in the courtyard of the royal palace.
 
3 - 62 CATIALIS COLLIS.
A part of the Quirinal hill, named from a certain Catus who is evidently identical with the Catus of the Cati fons.
 
3 - 63 CELLA NIGRINIANA.
A warehouse of some kind, known only from one inscription that was found on the site of the Palazzo Antonelli, on the west slope of the Quirinal. Several other similar warehouses of the early empire stood here and were destroyed by the building of the thermae Constantinianae 
 
3 - 64 CELLA SOLIARIS.
see THERMAE ANTONINIANAE.
 
3 - 65 CELLAE VINARIAE NOVA ET ARRUNTIANA.
A wine warehouse on the right bank of the Tiber that was excavated when the garden of the Villa Farnesina was reduced in size for the new embankment. It was just north of the line of the Aurelian wall and was buried beneath its glacis. It was a rectangular structure, resembling the horrea, of which the first story consisted of vaulted store-rooms and the second of a complex of courts surrounded by long porticoes
 
3 - 66 CENTUM GRADUS.
A flight of one hundred steps leading up to the Capitol, near the Tarpeian rock, at the south-west corner of the hill.
 
3 - 67 CERES LIBER LIBERAQUE, AEDES.
A temple on the slope of the Aventine hill, near the west end of the circus Maximus. According to tradition there was a famine in Rome in 496 B.C., and the dictator L. Postumius, after consulting the Sibylline books, vowed a temple to Demeter, Dionysus, and Kore if they would bring abundance again to the city. The temple was built, and dedicated in 493 B.C. by the consul Sp. Cassius to Ceres, Liber, and Libera, with whom the Greek deities were identified. Beloch assigns it to the fourth century B.C.

It was araeostyle, with columns of the Tuscan order, and the fastigium was decorated with statues of gilded bronze or terracotta of Etruscan workmanship. The walls of the cella were decorated with frescoes and reliefs by two Greek artists, Gorgasus and Damophilus, and there was a Greek inscription stating how much had been done by each. This temple, called by Cicero  pulcherrimum et Magnificentissimum, was enriched by many works of art, such as golden bowls and statues, from the fines levied by plebeian magistrates. It contained a bronze statue of Ceres, said to have been the first made in Rome, which was paid for out of the confiscated property of Sp. Cassius; and a painting of Bacchus (and Ariadne ?) that was brought from Corinth by Mummius. Twice it was struck by lightning, and twice it is mentioned in connection with prodigies. It was burned down in 31 B.C., restored by Augustus, and dedicated by Tiberius in A.D., and was standing in the fourth century. The site of the temple was near the west end of the circus on the Aventine side, but how far up the slope is not certain-perhaps near the junction of the modern Vicolo di S. Sabina and Via S. Maria in Cosmedin, but no traces of it have been found.

The worship of Ceres was essentially plebeian, and the political importance of this temple was very great. It was the headquarters of the plebeian aediles, the repository of their archives, and the treasury in which was placed the property of those who had been found guilty of assaulting plebeian magistrates. Copies of senatus consulta were also deposited here after 449 B.C.. The temple possessed the right of asylum , and was a centre of distribution of food to the poor. It was regularly called aedes, but delubrum once by Pliny, and in Greek Δημητρεῖον, Δημήτριον, and Δήμητρος ἱερόν. In ordinary usage the official title was abbreviated to aedes Cereris 
 
3 - 68 CERES MATER ET OPS AUGUSTA, ARA.
An altar erected by Augustus in 7 A.D. in vico Iugario, probably in honour of Livia, and dedicated on 10th August
 
3 - 69 CERMALUS.
The original name of the western and north- western part of the Palatine hill (v. PALATIUM), towards the Velabrum and vicus Tuscus, which was one of the montes of the Septimontium. The name continued in use during the early empire, but it may have been limited at that time to a street, perhaps the Cermalus min(or or - usculus) of an inscription
 
3 - 70 CEROLIENSIS.
Two variants of the same word, found only in a corrupt passage in Varro. The adjective form used here with locus points to a substantive Cerolia or Cerniae, which may also have been in use. This was the name of the valley between the Caelian hill and the Carinae, partly occupied afterwards by the Colosseum.
 
3 - 71 CHALCIDICUM.
An annex to the Curia Iulia built by Augustus, called τὸ Ἀθήναιον. It seems to have been a sort of porticus-perhaps a repository for records. The Chalcidicum was probably what was afterwards called the Atrium Minervae, and in theCURIA of Diocletian (q.v.) it was the central court, through which the via Bonella now runs.
 
3 - 72 CICINENSES.
Found in one inscription. It is to be connected with SICININUM (q.v.), and was in the vicinity of S. Maria Maggiore.
 
3 - 73 CICONIAE NIXAE.
Mentioned only in the Regionary Catalogue in Region IX in just this form, but doubtless referred to as ad Nixas in the calendar of Philocalus, and as de Ciconiis on an inscription. It designated a certain district, probably an open square, on the bank of the Tiber, in which there was a statue, or perhaps a relief on one of the surrounding buildings, of two or more storks with crossed bills. It was probably a little south of the Mausoleum Augusti, near the present Piazza Nicosia, and seems to have been a landing-place for wine
 
3 - 74 CIMBRUM.
see NYMPHAEUM.
 
3 - 75 CINCIA.
The site of the monumentum Cinciorum, i.e. the tomb of the Cincii, and perhaps their house also. Elsewhere the site of this tomb is called Statuae Cinciae, and identified with that of the porta Romanula of the ancient Palatine settlement.
 
3 - 76 CIRCUS FLAMINIUS.
Built by C. Flaminius Nepos while censor in 221 B.C. It was in the prata Flaminia, in the southern part of the campus Martius, and was named after its builder, although Varro says that it took its name from a CAMPUS FLAMINIUS (q.v.). In it were celebrated the ludi plebeii, the Taurii, and other games, e.g. the ludi saeculares in 158 B.C.; and assemblies of the people were frequently held here. It was also a market-place, and within it part of the ceremony of the triumph took place.  In 9 B.C. Augustus delivered the laudatio of Drusus here; and in 2 B.C. water was brought into the circus and thirty-six crocodiles butchered immediately after the dedication of the forum of Augustus. If P. Meyer and A. W. Van Buren are correct, Strabo mentions it between the circus Maximus and the forum Romanum.

Extant literature furnishes no information concerning the construction of the building, its restorations or its contents, except that contained in the statement of Vitruvius. This circus was so conspicuous a building and so important a centre that it soon gave its name to the immediate vicinity, and other buildings were described as ad circum Flaminium or in circo Flaminio. In the Regionary Catalogue it is the official name of Region IX. It is marked on a fragment (27) of the Marble Plan. Money changers appear to have had their stations in its arcades. In the Einsiedeln Itinerary the name is wrongly applied to the Stadium, though some think the Ordo Benedicti has the name correctly, while others think the circus is the basilica Iovis.

At the close of the twelfth century a considerable part of the circus, called castellum aureum, was still standing. Its ruins were described by Biondo in the fifteenth century, but almost entirely removed in the sixteenth to make room for the Mattei palace, and the whole site then gradually covered by modern buildings. Some remains of the curved end lie in and beneath the Palazzo Caetani in the Piazza Paganica and of the long sides in various cellars, especially those of the Palazzo Longhi Mattei Paganica. The construction is of concrete faced with opus reticulatum, but the pillars are built of large squared blocks of tufa and travertine. None of these remains can belong to the original date of erection.

The major axis of the circus ran almost due east and west. On the east the limits of the circus seem to be set by the discovery of private houses and the pavement of an ancient street just east of the Piazza Margana. If so, the length of the circus was about 260 metres, and its width about 10O.

The few remains and drawings of the sixteenth century architects show that this circus was built on the general plan adopted in later structures of a similar character, and that its lower story opened outwards through a series of travertine arcades, between which were Doric half-columns. In the Middle Ages the arcades on the north side were converted into dark shops, and gave the name to the street on that side, the Via delle Botteghe oscure; cf. the churches of S. Lucia de calcarario or de apothecis obscuris and of S. Salvator in Pensulis;  and the memory of the rope makers who plied their trade in the arena is preserved in the Via dei Funari and the churches of S. Nicola and S. Caterina dei Funari. 
 
3 - 77 CIRCUS GAI ET NERONIS: 
Built by Caligula as a private course for chariot racing in the HORTI AGRIPPINAE (q.v.). It was called circus Gai et Neronis and circus Vaticanus, and was a favourite place for the sports and orgies of Claudius and Nero; Suet. Nero 53. On the spina Caligula erected an obelisk (OBELISCUS VATICANUS (q.v.) ) from Heliopolis.

In the fourth century the north side of the circus was destroyed to make room for the first basilica of St. Peter, and the south wall and the two southernmost rows of columns of the church were built on the three parallel north walls of the circus. In the fifth century two mausolea were erected on part of the spina, one of them being the tomb of the wife of the Emperor Honorius. One of these was destroyed about 1520, (see SEPULCRUM MARIAE), but the other stood until the eighteenth century. For the mediaeval name Palatium Neronianum, see HCh 259. Some remains of the circus were visible in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and in the seventeenth, when the new church of St. Peter was being built, the ruins were described by G. Grimaldi, whose notes are extant in several MS. copies. Cerrati points out that the reason of the collapse of the old basilica was that its walls were built, not on the centre of the walls of the circus, but slightly to one side. The axis of the circus ran east and west, and the carceres were at the east end, toward the Tiber, flanked by two towers placed unsymmetrically. According to Grimaldi, the circus was 90 metres wide and 161 long, but the length is probably underestimated; while Cerrati determines the width as 500, not 400, palms
 
3 - 78 CIRCUS HADRIANI.
see NAUMACHIA VATICANA.
 
3 - 79 CIRCUS MAXIMUS.

The first and largest circus in Rome, which was gradually built up in the VALLIS MURCIA (q.v.), between the Palatine and Aventine hills. This valley was admirably adapted for the purpose, being 600 metres long and 150 wide. Here the first recorded games were held, horse races in honour of CONSUS (q.v.) ascribed to Romulus, at which occurred the rape of the Sabine women. To the Tarquins tradition ascribed the beginnings of the circus and the assignment of definite places or curiae to senate and knights where they could erect wooden platforms on supports, from which to view the games, either to Priscus or Superbus, but the first definite statement is that of Livy for 329 B.C., which makes it plain that there had been nothing permanent before that date. These carceres were probably of wood, for a century later they were painted.
It is probable that after the carceres the next permanent part of the circus to be constructed was the spina (see below), and that on it were placed those statues of which we have record, one of Pollentia. It is also possible that the arch of Stertinius with its gilded statues, erected in 196 B.C., may have stood in the line of the spina, but the temple of IUVENTAS (q.v.) of 191 was on one side. A permanent spina presupposes the covering over of the stream, which flowed through the circus. This came from the valley between the Caelian and Esquiline, passing through the (marshy ?) depression which later on Nero converted into the stagnum of the domus Aurea and then traversed the valley between the Caelian and Palatine. It was converted into a cloaca, and discharged into the Tiber about 100 metres below the Cloaca Maxima, where its mouth may still be seen. In KH iv. it is wrongly connected with the mediaeval Marrana Mariana (see AQUA IULIA).

In 174 B.C. the censors, Q. Fulvius Flaccus and A. Postumius Albinus, added considerably to the equipment of the circus, but owing to the fragmentary condition of the text in Livy, nothing can be made out with certainty except that they restored the carceres, and set up ova, or sets of seven large eggs of wood, with which to record the number of laps run in the races for the benefit of the spectators-an arrangement that became permanent. In 55 B.C., at the dedication of the temple of Venus Victrix, Pompeius caused twenty elephants to fight in the circus, and they broke down the iron railing with which he had intended to protect the spectators. More effective protection was afforded by the moat or euripus which Caesar constructed in 46 B.C. between the arena and the seats. This passage seems to mean that Caesar lengthened the circus and removed the goals temporarily, but does not justify the conclusion (HJ that up to this time there had been no permanent section of the spina. In 33 B.C. Agrippa placed on the spina seven dolphins, probably of bronze, which served with the ova to indicate the laps of the races.

How extensive and how permanent the circus had become before the Augustan period, it is impossible to say. In 31 B.C. a fire destroyed a considerable part of it. Augustus himself records only the construction or restoration of the pulvinar ad circum maximum, a sort of box on the Palatine side of the circus from which the imperial family could view the games, but Cassiodorus attributes to him much more. Pliny, on the other hand, speaks very distinctly of the existing circus as the work of the dictator Caesar. At any rate, our definite information about the monument, whether due to Caesar or Augustus, begins with the Augustan period, and subsequent changes probably did not affect materially its general plan. Besides building the pulvinar, Augustus set up on the spina the obelisk from Heliopolis, which is now in the Piazza del Popolo (see OBELISCUS AUGUSTI).

According to Dionysius's description, written in 7 B.C., the circus was then one of the most wonderful monuments in Rome, three and one-half stadia (621 metres) long and four plethra (1metres) wide, a euripus or water channel, ten feet wide and ten feet deep, surrounding the arena except at the carceres end. The seats rose in three sections, the lower story being built of stone, and the two upper of wood. The short side, opposite the carceres, was crescent-shaped, and the total seating capacity was 150,000. The carceres, or chariot stalls, were without roof, and closed by a rope barrier which could be dropped before them all at once. Around the outside of the building was a one-storied arcade containing shops and οἰκήσεις, perhaps a sort of pergola above them. Through this colonnade were entrances to the lower section of seats and stairways to the upper, arranged alternately to facilitate ingress and egress.

The chambers in the outer arcade, which Dionysius mentions, were occupied in large part by questionable characters, cooks, astrologers and prostitutes. Augustus and succeeding emperors also watched the games from the imperial residences on the Palatine, or the houses of their friends, as well as from the pulvinar. That the circus was faced with marble on the inside, and presumably on the outside also, is to be inferred from Ovid. Augustus is said to have assigned separate seats to the senators and knights, but apparently not in any fixed section, for Claudius did this for the senators, and Nero for the knights.

In 36 A.D. part of the circus on the Aventine side was burned. This is called pars circi inter ultores in a fragmentary chronicle of Ostia, where ultores probably refers to certain di ultores whose shrines were in this part of the circus. The damage was probably repaired at once, for Caligula celebrated the ludi circenses, evidently with considerable pomp.

Claudius built carceres of marble instead of the tufa, of which they had previously been constructed, and gilded goals, probably of bronze, in place of the earlier wooden metae. Nero removed the euripus to make room for additional seats for the equites, and protected the spectators from the wild beasts by a continuous round bar of wood, covered with ivory, which revolved and therefore gave no hold to the animals. At some later time the name euripus was given to basins of water on the spina, or in its line, and then to the spina itself. Into these basins flowed streams of water from the mouths of the dolphins.

In 64 A.D. the great fire of Nero broke out in the tabernae on the Palatine side of the circus, and must have destroyed a considerable part of this side at least. It is probable that in this, as in other fires, it was only the upper structure of wood that was burned. Nero evidently rebuilt the circus, for it was in use in 68 when he returned from Greece and passed through it in triumphal procession. Of the circus during the reign of Vespasian Pliny says that it was three stadia long, one wide, covered four iugera of land, and seated 250,000 persons. He calls the circus, the basilica Aemilia, and the temple of Peace the three most beautiful buildings in the world. The text of this passage is, however, corrupt, and the figures are open to question (see below). Again, in the reign of Domitian, both the long sides were injured by fire, but to what extent is not known. The restoration was carried out by Trajan with stone from Domitian's naumachia; he increased its seating capacity sufficiently by adding two stadia to the length of the cavea. A passage in Pliny's Panegyric (5 seems to mean that Trajan removed a sort of private box (cubiculum), from which Domitian, while invisible to the people, had viewed the games, and sat himself exposed to the gaze of the spec- tators. His enlargement of the circus was probably on the Palatine side, where an addition two stadia long could have been built on the north side of the street that bounded the north side of the circus, and could be connected by arches with the cavea. Whether Pliny's further statement-populo cui locorum quinque milia adiecisti-refers to the seats in this addition, is very doubtful. It was under Trajan that the circus seems to have reached its greatest size and magnificence.

During the reign of Antoninus Pius there was a ruina circi, doubtless the same catastrophe which is mentioned in Chron. 146: circensibus Apollinaribus partectorum columna ruit et oppressit homines MCXII. What the partecta were, is not known, but a similar accident is recorded under Diocletian. Caracalla is said to have enlarged the ianuae circi, presumably some of the arches of the lower arcade. Constantine restored the circus magnificently, and prepared to bring an obelisk from Heliopolis, which, however, was actually done by Constantius in 357. This was set on the spina and was the highest in Rome. References to the circus and its games in literature after Constantius are numerous, but give practically no informa- tion about the building except the section of the letter of Theodoric, contained in Cassiodorus, Varia iii. 5In addition to what has been already quoted from that letter, we learn that the spina was decorated with reliefs representing Roman generals in triumphal procession over the bodies of their captives, a scene that recurs on a diptych of the consul Lampadius of the fifth-sixth century.

Additional information about the circus is furnished by fragments of the Marble Plan, reliefs on sarcophagi, coins, mosaics, and smaller works of art. Modern excavations have brought to light comparatively few remains of the structure, mainly foundations of some parts of the east end, and of both the long sides, especially that on the north. The lines of the paved streets around the building have also been found, so that the exact site, the orientation, and the principal dimensions of the circus in its final shape, can be determined with considerable accuracy. The ruins under S. Anastasia form no part of the circus proper, but belong to buildings on the lower slopes of the Palatine. Only the arched chambers on the right of the church belong to the circus.

The length of the arena was 568 metres, and its width increased from 75 metres at the carceres to 84 at the beginning of the spina and 87 at its east end. The length of the spina was 344 metres, and the total length of the circus 600. The width of the cavea proper was 27 metres, but this was much increased by the additions built over the streets on the north and south sides. The extreme width thus secured on the Palatine side was about 80 metres, and the maximum width of the circus about 200.

The exterior had three stories with arches and engaged columns, like the Colosseum, but all covered with marble. The cavea was divided into three bands or zones of seats, separated by corridors. The upper and perhaps the middle zone were probably made of wood. The arrangement of approaches and stairways was also probably somewhat like that of the Colosseum. The west end contained the carceres or stalls for the chariots, set on a curve so that the distance was the same from each to the starting line drawn across the arena which marked the start and finish. The carceres, twelve in number, were closed by rope barriers supported by small hermae (hermulae), which were dropped simultaneously at the start. This fact probably explains the use of the name Duodecim portae for this end of the building. Above the middle of the carceres was the box of the magistrate presiding over the games, from which he gave the signal for the start with a mappa. At each end of the carceres were towers and battlements suggesting a walled town, and this part of the circus was sometimes called oppidum. The east end of the circus was curved, with a gateway in the centre through which the procession seems to have usually entered at the beginning of the games. In 81 A.D. this gateway was replaced by a triple arch, erected by the senate in honour of Titus and his capture of Jerusalem. It is represented on the Marble Plan. A podium, or raised platform, surrounded the arena. On this were the chairs of high officials, and from it the cavea rose gradually. On the spina were the two obelisks, the eggs and dolphins (see above), and at each end the metae or goals, three cones of gilt bronze. The altar of CONSUS (q.v.) was near the east end of the spina, and other shrines seem to be represented on the reliefs. Tertullian (de spect. 8)) gives a list of various divinities who were worshipped in the circus -- CASTOR AND POLLUX, SOL, MAGNA MATER, NEPTUNE, VENUS MURCIA (qq.v.), and some minor deities. Their shrines were either on the spina or in the cavea.

The seating capacity of the circus has given rise to much discussion. Dionysius' statement that the Augustan building held 150,000 spectators, and Pliny's that in his time it held 250,000, have both been questioned; and that of the Notitia that in the fourth century it had 385,000 loca has been interpreted to mean that number of running feet of seats, which would accommodate about 200,000 spectators. This seems reasonable, but there is no doubt that the capacity of the building was greatly increased after the time of Augustus and on this basis Dionysius' figure would seem too high. Estimates of the final capacity vary from a maximum of 385,000 to a minimum of 140,000, but no certainty has been reached.

Throughout the republic the circus was used for gladiatorial combats and fights with wild beasts, as well as for races; but after the building of the amphitheatre of Statilius Taurus, and still more after the erection of the Colosseum, the first species of entertainment was largely, although not entirely removed from the circus. The last recorded games took place under Totila in 550 A.D., and in that century the destruction of the circus began. The form of the circus was still clearly recognisable in the sixteenth century. At present a small portion of the seats at the curved end, on the N.E. side, are still visible, and traces were found further N.W. in making a drain in 1873-4 along the Via dei Cerchi (Mora in Messaggero, 25th March, 192. The name de gradellis, applied to churches of S. Gregorio and S. Maria does not refer to the circus but probably to the steps that descended to the mills in the Tiber.
 
3 - 80 CIRCUS MECINUS:  
A corruption in Varro for circus Maximus.
 
3 - 81 CIRCUS VATICANUS.
see CIRCUS GAI ET NERONIS.
 
3 - 82 CISPIUS MONS.
The northern spur of the Esquiline, separated from the Oppius on the south by the valley of the Subura, and from the Viminal on the north by the corresponding depression through which ran the vicus Patricius. The beginning of the Cispius, the point where it projected south-westward from the plateau of the Esquiline is now marked by S. Maria Maggiore, where the altitude is about 54 metres. The Cispius, the Oppius, and the Fagutal were the three parts of the Esquiline, and constituted three of the montes of the SEPTIMONTIUM. According to Varro Cispius was a native of Anagni who came to Rome in the reign of Tullus and guarded this hill
 
3 - 83 CLAUDIUS, DIVUS, TEMPLUM.
A temple of the deified Claudius on the Caelian, begun by Agrippina, almost entirely destroyed by Nero, and rebuilt by Vespasian. This destruction was probably due, in part at least, to the construction of the distributing station of the aqua Claudia, which Nero extended to the Caelian. Part of it may have been sacrificed to the domus Aurea, which extended to the north-west corner of the Caelian opposite the Colosseum, where this temple stood, the site now occupied by the gardens of the Passionist Fathers. It is mentioned in one inscription, and Aurelius Victor speaks of Claudii monumenta. There was also a porticus Claudia, which was clearly just inside the limits of the domus Aurea, and would most naturally be located on the Caelian in connection with the temple of Claudius. Three fragments of the Marble Planb probably belong together and represent parts of this temple and the buildings of the aqueduct, but they contain no indication of a porticus. Nevertheless, it is probable that the porticus Claudia surrounded the temple.

The last mention of the temple is in the fourth century, though a bull of Honorius III of 12speaks of the formae et alia aedificia positae intra clausuram Clodei. Nothing is known of the history of its destruction. It was prostyle hexastyle, fronting towards the north, and stood on a lofty and extensive podium, some of the substructures of which have been excavated and are now visible. These substructures are different on the different sides of the podium, those on the west consisting of double rows of travertine arches with engaged columns and entablature; those on the north containing what seem to be reservoirs for water; and those on the east consisting of alternately square and semicircular recesses which are separated from the podium by narrow passages. These passages are, probably, simply air spaces. The recesses are divided from one another by narrow semicircular niches in groups of three. This difference in style and construction is probably due to the combination of temple and nymphaeum which was the result of Vespasian's restoration.
 
3 - 84 CLEMENTIA, ARA.
An altar erected in 28 A.D. by the senate to the clementia of Tiberius, of which nothing more is known 
 
3 - 85 CLEMENTIA CAESARIS, AEDES.
A temple erected in 44 B.C. to Clementia and Caesar, in which the two were represented holding each other by the right hand. This temple is probably represented on a coin of Sepullius Macer as tetrastyle. Its site is not known.
 
3 - 86 CLITELLAE.
The nearest portion of the via Flaminia which can be described as being up- and downhill is close to Castelnuovo di Porto
 
3 - 87 CLIVUS ARGENTARIUS.
The street that formed the only immediate connection between the forum and the campus Martius before the imperial fora were built. It left the forum between the curia and the carcer, and ran along the slope of the Capitoline hill, corresponding closely with the modern Via di Marforio. Clivus Argentarius is found only in mediaeval documents, but the name was probably in use under the empire and derived from the shops of the argentarii (see BASILICA ARGENTARIA). In the time of the republic it seems to have been called LAUTUMIAE.
 
3 - 88 CLIVUS BASSILLI.
A road, mentioned only once, that seems to have branched off from the via Tiburtina in the area now occupied by the cemetery of S. Lorenzo.
 
3 - 89 CLIVUS CAPITOLINUS.
The principal approach to the Arx and Capitolium. This was originally a path, in effect a continuation of the Sacra via, which led up by a steep ascent from the west corner of the forum to the depression, Inter duos Lucos, where it divided. At the end of the regal period the path to the depression, with the branch to the Capitolium, was made into a road suitable for vehicles, and henceforth known as the clivus Capitolinus. In 174 B.C. it was paved by the censors, Q. Fulvius Flaccus and A. Postumius Albinus, and a porticus was built on the right side of the road from the temple of Saturn to the Capitolium. It is probable, however, that this porticus did not extend below the depression in later times. In 190 B.C. Scipio erected a decorative arch at the top of the clivus.

This was the only means of access to the mons Capitolinus except the flights of steps-Centum Gradus, Gradus Monetae (?)-and afforded a convenient place for commanding the forum with troops. Along part of it, probably Inter duos Lucos, there were private houses.

The clivus begins near the arch of Tiberius at the corner of the basilica Iulia. Here some arches of the time of Sulla are preserved, which supported it and a street branching from it (they have by some been wrongly explained as the ROSTRA, It then skirts the north front and the west side of the temple of Saturn. making a sharp turn at the corner of the porticus deorum Consentium, and ascends to the Asylum with an average gradient of 8. Part of the back wall of the porticus serves as a foundation for the clivus, but its upper course has been changed by more recent structures. Portions of the lava pavement of the clivus still exist at various points near the bottom of the ascent, including a small piece attributable to 174 B.C. and another attributable to Sulla; while that in front of the temple is one of the best specimens of Augustan paving in Rome, having been preserved by the erection upon it of the church of SS. Sergius and Bacchus (see SACRA VIA). Another piece of its pavement may be seen to the south of the porticus Deorum Consentium (a good deal is hidden by the modern road) and another to the south-west of the Tabularium. No trace remains of the upper part of the clivus or of the branch that led to the arx, which was at first the more important of the two. It is probable that the clivus reached the substructures of the area Capitolina on its north-east side, then turned at right angles, and with a rather steep rise of perhaps passed around the south corner of the area, and entered it on the south-east side. The PORTA STERCORARIA (q.v.) was probably not far above the temple of Saturn
 
3 - 90 CLIVUS CAPSARIUS.
A street on the Aventine known only from a fragment of the Acta Arvalia of 240 A.D. The capsarii looked after the clothes of persons using the public baths, and the clivus may have received its name because the attendants of the clothes rooms of the baths of Caracalla lived in it 
 
3 - 91 CLIVUS COSCONIUS.
A street of unknown location, built by a viocurus of the same name
 
3 - 92 CLIVUS DELPHINI.
A street mentioned only in the Regionary Catalogue in Region XII. It was probably a little north of the thermae Antoninianae, and possibly connected the via Nova with the via Ardeatina, along the line of the modem Via di S. Balbina.
 
3 - 93 CLIVUS MAMURI.
A street mentioned only in mediaeval documents, which probably took its name from the statua Mamuri. This, the statue of Mamurius Veturius, the legendary maker of the ancilia, was probably close to the temple of Quirinus and the CURIA SALIORUM (q.v.) and the street may have run south-east from the Alta Semita.
 
3 - 94 CLIVUS MARTIS.
The name given to that part of the via Appia, just before it is crossed by the line of the later Aurelian wall, where it ascended to the temple of MARS. NS 19297, Marti in Clivo. In process of time the grade of the road was removed or at least very much diminished. In 296 B.C. the clivus was paved, and repaved in 189 B.C., when it was provided with a porticus, and afterwards known as the VIA TECTA. This via Tecta is to be distinguished from the via Tecta in the campus Martius.
 
3 - 95 CLIVUS ORBIUS (URBIUS).
The earliest name of a street that led up the Carinae to the top of the Oppius, crossing the vicus Cuprius. In this street Tullia is said to have murdered her father, and it was afterwards called vicus Sceleratus. The line of the VICUS CUPRIUS (q.v.) seems fairly certain, approximately that of the Via del Cardello and Via del Colosseo, and therefore the clivus Orbius probably corresponded in part at least with the Via di S. Pietro in Vincoli, where ancient pavement has been found. Pais locates it farther south, within the area of the domus Aurea, but with less plausibility.
 
3 - 96 CLIVUS PALATINUS.
The name applied for convenience (it has no ancient warranty) to the road ascending to the Palatine from the SACRA VIA (q.v.) near the Arch of Titus. A small piece of its pavement belonging to the time of Sulla was found at about 29 metres above sea-level, and considerable remains of that laid by Augustus at a slightly higher level have been found near the Arch of Titus. That of Nero was slightly higher again and was about m. wide. Dr. Van Deman has since shown me that the arcade of Nero ran up as far as the arch attributed to Domitian by Boni, and by her to Augustus. (see ARCUS DOMITIANI).
 
3 - 97 CLIVUS PATRICI.
see VICUS PATRICIUS.
 
3 - 98 CLIVUS PUBLICIUS.
A street constructed and paved by Lucius and Marcus Publicius Malleolus, who were curule aediles about 238 B.C.. It began in the forum Boarium, near the west end of the circus Maximus and the porta Trigemina, and must have extended across the Aventine in a southerly direction, past the temple of Diana to the VICUS PISCINAE PUBLICAE (q.v.). It was said to have been burned to the ground in 203 B.C., which must mean that it was thickly built up.
 
3 - 99 CLIVUS PULLIUS.
A street running south from the Subura across the western end of the Oppius to the Fagutal, passing the point now occupied by the church of S. Pietro in Vincoli. An inscription of the end of the fourth century was found here which mentioned the clivumpullenses, and until the end of the sixteenth century the line of the street was marked by the church of S. Giovanni in Carapullo or in clivo Plumbeo.
 
3 - 100 CLIVUS RUTARIUS.
Mentioned only in one inscription, from which it cannot be determined whether it is the name of a part of the via Aurelia outside the porta Aurelia, or of another street running into this.
 
3 - 101 CLIVUS SACER.
Written sacer clivus in the three passages in which it occurs at all, another name, apparently confined to poetry, for the SACRA VIA (q.v.) proper, that is, the ascent from the forum to the summa Sacra via. It is often stated that this was also the name of the street that branched off from the summa Sacra via and ascended the Palatine (CLIVUS PALATINUS, q.v.), but probably without reason 
 
3 - 102 CLIVUS SALUTIS.
A street mentioned only in Symmachus, but probably identical with the vicus Salutis or Salutaris of an inscription that was found at the S.W. end of the Via del Quirinale.  This street was evidently named from the collis Salutaris or the temple of Salus, and probably connected the Alta Semita with the vicus Longus, corresponding in general with the Via della Consulta. The ancient pavement has been found along this line, in some places as deep as metres below the present level.
 
3 - 103 CLIVUS SCAURI.
A street ascending from the depression between the Palatine and the Caelian, and running east to the top of the latter hill, the point now marked by the Piazza della Navicella. It branched off from the street connecting the circus Maximus and Colosseum, just north of the Septizonium where the church of S. Gregorio now stands, and seems to have coincided in general with the modern Via di SS. Giovanni e Paolo. The name occurs only in post-classical documents and in various tenth century documents of the Reg. Sublac., but is probably ancient, and may be the vicus Scauri of one inscription. It has been conjectured that the vicus trium Ararum mentioned on the Capitoline Base in Region I, and in a dedicatory inscription found in front of S. Gregorio, may have been another name for the lower part of this street. There was also a church of S. Trinitas in clivo Scauri to the west of S. Gregorio near the ARCUS STILLANS
 
3 - 104 CLIVUS SUBURANUS.
The irregular continuation of the Subura, where it ascended between the Oppius and Cispius to the porta Esquilina. The remains of ancient pavement show that it followed in general the line of the Vie di S. Lucia in Selci, di S. Martino, and di S. Vito. A street which ran northward to join it from the west side of the thermae of Trajan was found in 1922.
 
3 - 105 CLIVUS TRIARIUS.
A street known only from one inscription, but perhaps identical with the vicus Triari of the Capitoline Base.
 
3 - 106 CLIVUS VICTORIAE.
The ascent to the Palatine from the Velabrum on the west side, which took its name from the temple of VICTORIA (q.v.). It probably began at the porta Romana, a little south of the present church of S. Teodoro. The present path, skirting the cliff, ascends to the north corner of the hill, where it turns abruptly to the right and passes under the substructures of the domus Tiberiana. Ancient pavement exists all along this path, and there is no reason for doubting that this is the line of the clivus as it existed after the erection of this part of the palace ; but this building must have materially altered previous conditions and the earlier line of the street. A repaving of it may be alluded to in an inscription of the Sullan period found in the forum.
 
3 - 107 CLIVIUS URBIUS.
see CLIVUS ORBIUS.
 
3 - 108 CLOACA MAXIMA.
A sewer constructed, according to tradition, by Tarquinius Superbus to drain the forum and the valleys between the hills.  Even in the time of Theodoric the cloacae of Rome were objects of wonder. This tradition has been strikingly confirmed-and it is one of the most important historical results of the recent excavations in the forum-by the fact that the latest tombs in the prehistoric necropolis of the forum belong to the sixth century B.C..

The course of the cloaca Maxima proper began in the Argiletum, where it collected the waters of the Esquiline, Viminal and Quirinal, and flowed through the forum and Velabrum to the Tiber. The windings of the whole of its course show that it was in origin a stream flowing through a marshy valley, which Tarquin regulated by walls; and despite what the writers of the empire say about his having constructed it underground from the first, Plautus's reference to it as canalis has led most scholars to suppose that it was not roofed until after his own time. Some of its windings too appear to have been due to the erection of buildings under the empire, e.g. that near the temple of Minerva, though the style of construction seems older (see below).

It is probable that nothing remains of the original drain, though a small section in cappellaccio under the basilica Aemilia may be attributed to such an early period; but it has not yet been properly described. Some of the branch drains near the temple of Saturn, on the other hand, may be assigned to the beginning of the fifth century B.C. at latest.

In the rest of its course there is nothing belonging to any period before the third century B.C., and much is a good deal later, being assignable to the restorations of Agrippa. The whole, however, needs further examination in the light of modern criteria.

The cloaca proper seems to have begun near the north-west corner of the forum of Augustus. From this point to the via Alessandrina it is built entirely of peperino, vaulted, and paved with blocks of lava- the characteristic style of the republic; while onwards as far as the forum the roof has been restored in brick-faced concrete of the empire. The channel is here 4.20 metres high and 3.20 wide. Eight branches empty into this section-none of them, as Lanciani notes, from private houses, which must have relied largely on cesspools. Beneath the nave of the basilica Aemilia the channel of the cloaca Maxima has been found crossing it obliquely; this portion had been rebuilt in tufa and travertine in 34 A.D. Originally it appears to have run in the direction of the column of Phocas, though it must soon have turned westward; but a branch was built (in 78 B.C., as Frank thinks-but did the cloaca at that time already run round the outside of the basilica ?) to connect it with the line of the cloaca as rebuilt (by Agrippa ?), which skirted the basilica on the north-west and south-west, then turned at right angles to the south-west near the shrine of Venus Cloacina, crossed the area of the forum, passed under the east end of the basilica Iulia, and thence into the Velabrum. According to Ficoroni the whole of this lower section was cleared in 1742; the conduit was found to be built of blocks of travertine and was as much as metres below ground. A part of it, belonging to the republican period, with later restorations, is still visible opposite the church of S. Giorgio in Velabro. It has recently been connected with the main sewer of modern Rome, so that the forum can no longer be inundated by its backwash, as it was, for the last time, in the flood of 1901: Vidimus flavum  Tiberim  retortis litore Etrusco violenter undisire deiectum monumenta regis templaque Vestae. The three concentric arches at the mouth of it, which show a combination of Gabine stone and Grotta Oscura stone, are assigned to 100 B.C. or slightly before.
 
3 - 109 CLOACINA, SACRUM.
A shrine of Cloacina, the divinity of the cloaca (cloaca Maxima), in the forum near the Tabernae novae. In process of time Cloacina was arbitrarily identified with Venus and called Venus Cloacina. The origin of the cult and the erection of the first shrine belong probably to the first period in the history of the CLOACA MAXIMA (q.v.), although tradition ascribed it to Titus Tatius. Coins struck during the second triumvirate represent a small round structure with a metal balustrade, the legend CLOACIN, and two female figures, one holding a flower, which evidently represent Venus Cloacina. There is no doubt that this is the shrine of which the foundations were discovered directly in front of the basilica Aemilia in 1899-190The existing remains stand over the drain that flows under the basilica, near the point where it empties into the cloaca Maxima, and consist of a marble base, round except on the west side, where it has a rectangular projection, 2.40 metres in diameter, resting on a slab of travertine and eight courses of various kinds of stone. The character of these courses shows that the foundation was gradually raised as the basilica encroached upon it
 
3 - 110 CODETA.
A district on the right bank of the Tiber, so called because of the myrtle ('mare's tail') which grew there. A campus Codetanus is mentioned in Reg. in Region XIV, which is probably the same as the Codeta, but it cannot be located more definitely. It is possible that a fragmentary inscription from a terminal cippus may refer to this district. See NAUMACHIA AUGUSTI.
 
3 - 111 CODETA MINOR.
Mentioned only once as that part of the campus Martius in which Caesar constructed a naumachia for his triumph in 46 B.C. It was perhaps just opposite the Codeta of Region XIV.
 
3 - 112 COHORTIUM VIGILUM STATIONES.
The seven barracks of the seven cohorts of police and firemen, established by Augustus when he reorganised the city in fourteen regions. Besides the stationes, there were fourteen smaller posts, excubitoria. From actual remains and inscriptions found in situ, the location of four stationes is determined:

I on the east side of the via Lata, directly opposite the Saepta. The plan of this statio is certainly preserved on a fragment (36) of the Marble Plan, and represents a rectangular building with its main axis extending due north and south at an angle of degrees with the via Lata, and divided into three parts, each of which consisted of a central court surrounded by a porticus and rows of chambers. Extensive remains brought to light by the excavations of the seventeenth century showed, however, that many changes had been made in the barracks after the time of Severus.

II on the Esquiline, at the south end of the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele.

IV on the Aventine, just north of the church of S. Saba.

V on the Caelian, just west of the Macellum magnum, the present church of S. Stefano Rotondo. Besides the inscriptions, some traces of the building were found in the sixteenth century.

The location of the other three barracks is uncertain:

III in Region VI. The epigraphic evidence is indeterminate, but the statio was probably just inside the porta Viminalis, near the east corner of the baths of Diocletian.

VI in Region VIII, but the inscriptions are without topographical value. For a supposed excubitorium in the forum.

VII in Region XIV (Not.). No traces of the statio of this cohort have been found, but considerable remains of one of the excubitoria were discovered in 1866 at the monte de' Fiori, near the church of S. Crisogono. The building, which appears to have been originally a large private house, belongs to the second century with later additions, and on its walls are many graffiti, dating from 2to 245 A.D. and containing much information in regard to the organisation of the corps. The portion excavated consists of a central atrium with mosaic pavement and a hexagonal fountain, and adjacent apartments, among them a lararium and a balneum. Some authorities place the other excubitorium in the ninth region, because in one of the graffiti the seventh cohort is referred to as Cohor(s) vigul(um) Neron(ianis (?)), i.e. at the Thermae Neronianae. But Baillie Reynolds brings strong arguments in favour of the view that the eleventh and fourteenth regions were in the charge of the seventh cohort.
 
3 - 113 COLLIS HORTULORUM.
see PINCIUS MONS.
 
3 - 114 COLOSSEUM.
see AMPHITHEATRUM FLAVIUM.
 
3 - 115 COLOSSUS NERONIS.
A colossal bronze statue of Nero, 120 feet high, the work of Zenodorus, a Greek, erected by Nero himself in the vestibule of the DOMUS AUREA (q.v.) on the summit of the Velia, but after the death of that emperor changed by Vespasian into a statue of the Sun. (see DOMUS AUREA). Hulsen considers ἱδρύθη to be a loose translation of refectusest, so that we need not suppose that the statue was actually moved. Dio states that some said it was like Nero and others like Titus. Hadrian, perhaps early in 128 A.D., moved it nearer the Colosseum in order to make room for the temple of Venus and Roma, it is said, without taking it down. Commodus converted it into a statue of himself as Hercules; but at his death it was restored as the Sun and so remained. Part of the pedestal which was built by Hadrian still exists, between the Colosseum and the temple of Venus and Roma. It is 7 metres square, of brick-faced concrete, and was originally covered with marble.

For a block of travertine which may have formed part of the flight of steps inside one leg of this huge figure see Mem. Remains of what may be the base on which it stood originally exist under the monastery of S. Francesca Romana. The mention of it in Hemerol. cit., colossus coronatur, is the last in antiquity, and is an interesting record of the persistence in Christian times of a picturesque spring festival celebrated by the sellers of garlands on the Sacra via. The famous saying quoted by Bede (Collect. iii.), ' quamdiu stabit coliseus, stabit et Roma; quando cadet coliseus, cadet etRoma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus,' should be referred, not to the amphitheatre but to the statue, which had no doubt fallen long before. And the early mediaeval mentions of insula, regio, rota colisei should be similarly explained. The name was not transferred to the building until about 1000 A.D.
 
3 - 116 COLUMNA ANTONINI PII.
A column, erected in memory of Antoninus Pius by his two adopted sons, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. It stood in the campus Martius, on the edge of the elevation now known as Monte Citorio, and belonged architecturally to the USTRINUM (q.v.), being 25 metres north of it with the same orientation. The column was a monolith of red granite, 14.75 metres in height and 1.90 in diameter, and was quarried in 106 A.D., as is shown by the masons' inscription on its lower end. It stood on a pedestal of white marble, surrounded with a grating, and was surmounted by a statue of Antoninus, as is represented on coins issued after his death. Previous to the eighteenth century the base of the column was entirely buried, but the lower part of the shaft projected about 6 metres above the ground. In 1703 the base was excavated, but the shaft lay in the Piazza Colonna until 1764 when unsuccessful attempts were made to repair it. Some pieces were used to restore the obelisk of Augustus that is now in the Piazza di Monte Citorio, and the lower part was taken to the Vatican. Three of the sides of the pedestal, which is now in the Giardino della Pigna in the Vatican, are covered with reliefs. The principal one, representing the apotheosis of Antoninus and Faustina, was turned towards the Ustrinum. The opposite side bears the dedicatory inscription, and the reliefs on the other two represent scenes from the decursus equitum at the deification
 
3 - 117 COLUMNA BELLICA.
A small column standing in an open area beside the temple of Bellona in the campus Martius. A soldier of Pyrrhus had been forced to buy this spot of ground in order that it might represent foreign soil, and the column represented a boundary stone over which the fetial cast his spear when war was to be declared in due form against a foreign foe. This act is said to have been performed as late as the time of Marcus Aurelius
 
3 - 118 COLUMNA LACTARIA.
A column in the forum holitorium, mentioned only by Festus (118), who says that it was so called quod ibi infantes lacte alendos deferebant (cf. also AEDES PIETATIS IN FORO HOLITORIO). Its base may have been adorned with reliefs which suggested or bore out its name 
 
3 - 119 COLUMNA MAENIA.
A column erected in 338 B.C. in honour of C. Maenius, the victor in the naval battle at Antium, which stood near the basilica Porcia and the Carcer. Another tradition, probably false, attributed the column to a later Maenius who, when he sold his house to Cato the Censor to make room for the basilica Porcia, reserved one column that he might use it as a support for the platform from which to view the games in the forum. This column was standing in the fourth century.
 
3 - 120 COLUMNA M. AURELII ANTONINI.
The column erected between 176 and 193 A.D. to commemorate the victories of Marcus Aurelius over the Marcomanni and Sarmatians in 172-175 on the west side of the via Lata, opposite the campus Agrippae; it is still standing. An inscription found near its west side records the building of a separate lodge for the procurator of the column in August-September, 193. In this inscription the column is called columna centenariadivorum Marci et Faustinae, columna divi Marci, columna Centenaria, and columnacentenaria divi Marci; and in Reg. 9 columna Cochlis, either because of the spiral band of relief surrounding it, or because of the spiral staircase in the interior. It was called centenaria because it was one hundred feet high. This monument was more carefully preserved than most of those in Rome, having been given in the tenth century by Popes Agapetus II and John XII to the Benedictines of S. Silvestro in capite, with the little church of S. Andrea de Columna, but it suffered somewhat from fire and earthquake. In the sixteenth century repairs were made by the municipal authorities, and also by Sixtus V in 1589 and the following year, when Fontana, his architect, placed on top of the column the present statue of St. Paul. He also chiselled off from the pedestal what remained of the reliefs on its four sides-sacrificial scenes with Victories and garlands-and encased its upper part, above ground, with marble, some of which came from the Septizonium. The dedicatory inscription had long ago disappeared, and is not recorded by any author.

The column is a direct imitation of that of Trajan, the height of shaft, torus, and capital being the same, 100 Roman feet (29.77 metres), but tapers less and therefore seems more massive. The shaft itself, 26.50 metres in height and 3.90 in diameter, is composed of 26 rings of Luna marble. It is hollow, and contains a spiral stairway with 200 steps. The interior is lighted by 56 rectangular loop-holes. Therefore the statement of Reg. 9 is incorrect in its first two items. The shaft stands on a plinth and torus decorated with oak leaves, 1.385 metres high, and its capital is 1.5 metres in height and of the Doric order. The exterior of the shaft is adorned with reliefs arranged in a spiral band which returns upon itself twenty-one times. These reliefs represent scenes in the campaigns of Aurelius and correspond to those on the column of Trajan, but are inferior in execution (for the explanation of these columns as book-rolls, see Birt, quoted under FORUM TRAIANI). It is probable that the temple of Aurelius (see DIVUS MARCUS, TEMPLUM） stood just west of the column, and that both were surrounded by a porticus.
 
3 - 121 COLUMNA MINUCIA.
Erected in honour of L. Minucius Augurinus, praefectus annonae in 439 B.C., by order of the people and paid for by popular subscription-the first occurrence of the kind in Rome. This column stood outside the porta Trigemina, and is represented on denarii of 129 and B.C. as surmounted with a statue holding stalks of wheat, and with two other statues standing at its base, one of which seems to represent Minucius. It is probable, therefore, that this is the same monument referred to elsewhere in Pliny, where the same story is told, but a statue, not a column, is mentioned. The bos aurata, which Livy says was erected in honour of Minucius outside the porta Trigemina, was probably part of the same monument
 
3 - 122 COLUMNA PHOCAE.
A monument in front of the rostra in the forum which, according to the inscription on the marble base of the column, was erected in 608 A.D. by Smaragdus, exarch of Italy, in honour of Phocas, emperor of the East. The monument consists of a fluted Corinthian column of white marble, 1.39 metres in diameter and 13.60 high, on which was placed the statue of Phocas in gilt bronze. This column stood on a marble base, which in turn rests on a square brick pedestal which was entirely surrounded by flights of nine steps made of tufa blocks taken from other structures. The steps on the north and east sides were removed in 1903. The whole monument cannot have been erected by Smaragdus, for the brick pedestal belongs probably to the fourth century, while the column, from its style and execution, must be earlier still. The pedestal was probably built at the same time as those in front of the basilica Iulia, and the column set upon it. Smaragdus simply set the statue of Phocas on the column and constructed the pyramid of tufa steps around the pedestal 
 
3 - 123 COLUMNA ROSTRATA.
(M. Aemilii Paulli): a column, adorned with the beaks of ships, erected on the Capitoline in honour of M. Aemilius Paullus, consul in 255 B.C., and destroyed by lightning in 172 B.C. 
 
3 - 124 COLUMNA ROSTRATA AUGUSTI.
A gilded column, decorated with rostra, erected in the forum after Octavian's return to Rome in 36 B.C., to commemorate his victory over Sextus Pompeius. The column was surmounted with a statue of Octavian and is represented on a coin issued between 35 and 28 B.C.. Servius says that after his conquest of Egypt Augustus melted down many of the beaks of the captured ships and constructed four columns, which Domitian removed to the Capitoline where they stood in Servius' day. Where they were erected by Augustus, and whether they were rostratae in the ordinary sense, is uncertain.
 
3 - 125 COLUMNA ROSTRATA C. DUILII.
That one of the two columnae rostratae, erected by C. Duilius in honour of his naval victory over the Carthaginians in 260 B.C., which stood 'ante circum  a parte ianuarum' 
 
3 - 126 COLUMNA ROSTRATA C. DUILII.
The second and more famous of these two columns mentioned above. It stood either on or near the rostra, and with its archaic inscription seems to have been restored about 150 B.C., and again later by Augustus or Tiberius. Part of this restored inscription was discovered in 1565 and is still preserved in the Palazzo dei Conservatori.

The inscription of the column has since been transferred to the Museo Mussolini. There are records of payments for placing it in its niche in 1572, while Marchionne was not paid till 1574.
 
3 - 127 COLUMNA TRAIANI.
see FORUM TRAIANI.
 
3 - 128 COMITIUM.
The place of assembly of ancient Rome. Until Mommsen's article the comitium was believed to have been a building situated at the east end of the forum. In reality it was an open space, upon which troops could march, and prodigies such as the raining of blood could be observed; and when it is spoken of as tectum, this only means that awnings were spread over it. Its site was conjecturally fixed as early as 1870, but certainty was only reached when the CURIA IULIA (q.v.) was correctly identified. For comitium and curia were connected through all time.

The comitium was the political centre of ancient Rome until the second century B.C. Macrob. refers to the administration of justice as still going on there in 161 B.C., though the tribes usually voted in the forum. In 145 B.C. the tribune C. Licinius Crassus was the first, we are told, to lead the legislative assembly of the people from the comitium to the forum, and Plutarch must be wrong in attributing the step to Gaius Gracchu.

The republican comitium was a templum or inaugurated plot of ground orientated according to the cardinal points of the compass. In the centre of the north side was the curia; on the west were the carcer and the basilica Porcia; on the south were the rostra and the Graecostasis; while theSENACULUM (q.v.) was further off. For the various archaic monuments which stood in the comitium, see FICUS NAVIA, PUTEAL IN COMITIO, STATUA ATTI NAVI, STATUA HERMODORI, STATUA HORATII COCHLITIS.

Until recent excavations, the comitium was buried to a depth of over 30 feet; but it has now been completely cleared from the front of the curia Iulia, except on the north-west. The twenty-seven different strata recognised by Boni in his stratigraphic explorations may be reduced to fourteen main divisions, which represent five successive elevations.

The whole question is closely connected with the problems concerning the ROSTRA VETERA (q.v.). It seems that the latter changed its orientation more than once, but whether we should suppose that the comitium and the curia did the same is doubtful, though one would naturally suppose a certain amount of symmetry.

The five successive elevations are as follows:

( At about 10.40 to 10.60 metres above sea-level, traces were found of a layer of beaten earth not unlike a primitive pavement ; and a little above this a compact stratum of a large number of broken roof tiles of an early type was brought to light at the same time. They are clearly the debris of some building or buildings close at hand destroyed by fire, and belonging to the level below them. They cannot, it is held, be earlier than the 6th century B.C., and it may be the fire that followed the Gallic invasion of 390 B.C. that is in question.

( At 10.85 to 10.90 above sea-level, i.e. at the same level as the cappellaccio pavements of the forum, a hard stratum of tufa and earth beaten together was found. It was about 8 cm. thick, and was either the bed of a pavement or the pavement itself; for from it a low flight of steps led up to the platform of the rostra Vetera. (the straight flight of steps in HC pl. v., where it is shown in black and lettered rostra Vetera?) and a similar flight of steps descended to the same level in front of the curia Iulia (also shown in black on the plan cited). The rostra Vetera separated the comitium from the forum on the south, and themselves faced due south, while the career, which faced almost due east, formed its western boundary; but its northern and eastern limits have not yet been ascertained at this period (later on, the former is marked by the tabernae of the forum Iulium; while on the east it cannot have extended, one would think beyond the cloaca Maxima).

( Half a metre higher, at 11.35 to 11.50 metres above sea-level, are portions of structures which point to a rise in level; no traces of a pavement have so far been found, though a thin layer of earth and tufa may have represented it.

( A foot higher again, at 11.80 metres above sea-level, is another floor, from which the curved steps of the rostra Vetera ascend. No actual pavement is preserved, but the level is clear from a line of tufa slabs on which the rostra rests.

Higher again, at 12.63 metres above sea-level, is a pavement of finely cut and laid travertine slabs immediately in front of the curia, generally attributed to the restoration of Faustus Sulla (see CURIA); their orientation does not agree with that of the curia nor of the rostra.

Above it, and directly in front of the later steps of the curia is a pavement of blocks of Luna marble, 13.50 metres above sea-level, which represents the level of the Comitium as established by Caesar. It was now quite a small area, divided off from the forum by a screen supported by pilasters, the holes for which are visible (or this line may have divided the comitium into two parts; but if so, it is difficult to assign any other boundary to it). Beyond this the pavement was of slabs of travertine, which still exists round the black marble pavement, or niger lapis (?), and towards the Arch of Severus. The reason for the reduction in size of the Comitium was the construction of the Saepta, in consequence of which it ceased to have any raison d'etre.

The latest pavement of the comitium begins at abo it metres from the front of the curia and extends in a fragmentary condition as far as the black marble pavement. It consists of roughly laid slabs of travertine, and is about 20 centimetres higher than the marble pavement just described. Resting partly on each of the two pavements is the circular marble basin of a fountain, with an octagonal space for the foot of a large bowl-perhaps that which now stands on the Quirinal. Good though the workmanship is, it is generally assigned to the fourth or fifth century A.D.

In the fourth century A.D. several pedestals with dedicatory inscriptions were set up in the comitium-a dedication by Maxentius to Mars Invictus and the founders of the city (see SEPULCRUM ROMULI), a dedication to Constantius by Memmius Vitrasius Orfitus and a third with scanty traces of a dedication to Iulianus.

At various points in the comitium are twenty-one small, shallow pits made of slabs of tufa set vertically, of various shapes; they are generally covered with stone slabs, and are similar to those found in the forum, which, however, are rectangular. Most of those in the comitium were filled with debris of the end of the republic. Their purpose is quite uncertain-they may have served to contain the remains of sacrifices, and are therefore called ' pozzi rituali ' ; or they may have served (though this seems unlikely) to carry away rain water; or they may have been intended to hold wooden posts (like flagstaffs) for festivals.
 
3 - 129 COMPITUM ACILII.
Probably the intersection of the VICUS CUPRIUS  and another street that ran north-east, up and across the Carinae. This compitum is mentioned twice. Near it was the Tigillum Sororium, and a shop that was bought by the state for Archagathus, the first Greek physician who came to Rome, in 229 B.C.
 
3 - 130 COMPITUM ALIARIUM.
The intersection of two or more streets of unknown location, which is mentioned only in four inscriptions.

There seems to be no warrant for the form Alliarium. The derivation is from alium (garlic).
 
3 - 131 COMPITUM FABRICIUM.
Evidently the intersection of the vicus Fabricius and some other street, where there was also a lacus. It was near the CURIAE NOVAE, and very probably on the western slope of the Caelian hill. It is said to have received its name from the fact that a house was given to Fabricius at this point obreciperatos de hostibus captivos. The Fabricius referred to is probably the ambassador to Pyrrhus in 278 B.C.. The vicus Fabricii is known only from the Capitoline Base, where it is the last street in Regio I.
 
3 - 132 CONCORDIA, AEDES.
A temple to Concord on the arx, vowed probably by the praetor L. Manlius in 2B.C. after he had quelled a mutiny among his troops in Cisalpine Gaul. It was begun in 2and dedicated on 5th February, 216. It was probably on the east side of the arx, and overlooked the great temple of Concord below.
 
3 - 133 CONCORDIA, AEDICULA.
A bronze shrine of Concord erected by the aedile, Cn. Flavius, in 304 B.C. in Graecostasi and in area Volcani. It stood therefore on the GRAECOSTASIS (q.v.), close to the great temple of Concord, and must have been destroyed when this temple was enlarged by Opimius in 121 B.C. Flavius vowed this shrine in the hope of reconciling the nobility who had been outraged by his publication of the calendar, but as no money was voted by the senate, he was forced to construct the building out of the fines of condemned usurers ' summa nobilium invidia'.
 
3 - 134 CONCORDIA, AEDES.
A temple said by Ovid to have been built by Livia. The description of the PORTICUS LIVIAE (q.v.) follows immediately, and it is probable therefore that the temple was close to or within the porticus, but the small rectangular structure marked on the Marble Plan can hardly have been a temple deserving of the epithet magnifica. There is no other reference to the temple.
 
3 - 135 CONCORDIA NOVA.
A temple voted by the senate in 44 B.C. in honour of Caesar. It is not certain that it was ever built.
 
3 - 136 CONCORDIA, AEDES, TEMPLUM.
A temple at the north-west corner of the forum, said to have been vowed by L. Furius Camillus in 367 B.C. during the disturbances that took place over the passage of the Licinian laws. Its erection was voted by the people immediately after their enactment. It stood between the Volcanal and the foot of the Capitoline, and the space around it was called area Concordiae, which is mentioned only in connection with prodigia of 183 and 181 B.C. The date of the actual erection of the temple is not known; the day of its dedication was probably 22nd July, while that of the later structure was 16th January. In 2B.C. a statue of Victory on its roof was struck down by lightning.

In 121 B.C., after the death of C. Gracchus, the senate ordered this temple to be restored by L. Opimius, to the great disgust of the democracy. Opimius probably built his BASILICA (q.v.) at the same time, close to the temple on the north. In 7 B.C. Tiberius undertook to restore the temple with his spoils from Germany, and the structure was completed and dedicated as aedes Concordiae Augustae, in the name of Tiberius and his dead brother Drusus, on 16th January, A.D.. It is represented on coins. A later restoration, perhaps after the fire of 284, is recorded in an inscription, which was seen on the pronaos of the temple by the copyist of the inscriptions in the Einsiedeln Itinerary.

After the restoration by Opimius, this temple was frequently used for assemblies of the senate, and as a meeting-place for the Arval Brethren.

Tiberius compelled the Rhodians to sell him a statue of Vesta for this temple, and it evidently became a sort of museum, for Pliny mentions many works of art that were placed in it-statues of Apollo and Juno by Baton, Latona with the infant Apollo and Diana by Euphranor, Aesculapius and Hygeia by Niceratus, Mars and Mercury by Piston, Ceres Jupiter and Minerva by Sthennis, paintings of Marsyas by Zeuxis, Liber by Nicias, Cassandra by Theodorus; four elephants of obsidian dedicated by Augustus; and a famous sardonyx that had belonged to Polycrates of Samos.

A few other incidental references to the temple occur, and gifts were deposited here by order of the senate in A.D. after the alleged conspiracy of Libo. Several dedicatory inscriptions have been found among its ruins, and three others mention an aedituus of the temple. It is represented on a coin of Orbiana, the wife of Alexander Severus, and on a fragment of the Marble Plan; and is mentioned in the Regionary Catalogue. The structure was threatening to collapse in the time of Hadrian I, 772-795 A.D.

Its situation with respect to other buildings and the contour of the ground led to the adoption of a plan which made this structure unique among Roman temples. Instead of having the usual proportions, the cella of the Augustan temple was 45 metres wide and only 24 deep, while the pronaos was only 34 metres wide and deep, and therefore did not extend across the whole front of the cella. The back wall of the cella abutted against the front of the Tabularium, and a very wide flight of steps led down from the pronaos to the area. So far as investigations have been carried, they seem to show that the ground plan of the temple of Opimius was similar to that of Tiberius. The interior of the Augustan cella was surrounded by a row of white marble columns, standing on a low shelf which projected from the main wall. This wall contained eleven niches, in the central one of which, opposite the entrance, a statue of Concord must have stood. The exterior of the temple was entirely covered with marble, and the building must have been one of the most beautiful in Rome.

The existing remains consist of the concrete core of the podium, much of which belongs to the construction of 121 B.C., and is probably the oldest known concrete in the city; the threshold of the main entrance, composed of two blocks of Porta Santa marble, together 7 metres long; a very few fragments of the marble pavement of the cella and the pronaos; and a part of the magnincent cornice, now in the Tabularium, together with numerous small architectural fragments. The bases were also very fine--the only perfect example is in the Berlin museum. In the podium are two chambers which may have been store-rooms for treasure.
 
3 - 137 CONSENTES DEI (PORTICUS).
see PORTICUS DEORUM CONSENTIUM.
 
3 - 138 CONSUS, ARA.
An altar of Consus, an Italic deity of agriculture and the underworld, whose cult was one of the most ancient in the city and localised in the valley between the Aventine and Palatine. It was perhaps dedicated on 1st January, under which date it appears to be mentioned in Fast. When the circus Maximus finally occupied the entire valley, the altar was near the primae metae, that is, at the south-east end of the permanent spina. It is named by Tacitus as one of the corners of the Palatine POMERIUM (q.v.). This altar was underground, and covered except at festivals (7th July, 21st August, 15th December), when it was exposed and sacrifices offered on it. For a theory that the primae metae and the shrine of MURCIA (q.v.) were at the north-west end of the carceres, and that a brick receptacle, discovered in 1825, may have enclosed the ara Consi,
 
3 - 139 CONSUS, AEDES.
A temple of Consus on the Aventine, probably vowed or built by L. Papirius Cursor in 272 B.C. on the occasion of his triumph. This may fairly be inferred from the fact that Papirius was painted on the walls in the robes of a triumphator. In the Fasti Vallenses the day of dedication is given as 21st August; in the Fasti Amiternini as 12th December; a discrepancy that may perhaps be explained by supposing that the temple had been restored by Augustus after 7 B.C.. It is probable that this temple was near that of Vortumnus in the VICUS LORETI MAIORIS (q.v.) on the north-west part of the Aventine.
 
3 - 140 CORARIA SEPTIMIANA.
Mentioned in the Regionary Catalogue in Region XIV, and probably the headquarters of the organised tanners of Rome. Three inscriptions relating to the corpus corariorum have been found in the neighbourhood of the Ponte Rotto, and in 1899-90 the remains of a large tannery were found beneath S. Cecilia, with six vats like those at Pompeii.
 
3 - 141 CORNETA.
A place between the Sacra via and the Macellum, north of the forum, where there had been a grove of cornel trees. According to the probable emendation of a passage in Placidus this site was afterwards occupied by the temple of Peace.
 
3 - 142 CORNISCAE.
A grove or shrine on the right bank of the Tiber, dedicated to the Corniscae, the sacred crows in the service of Juno. Fest.  Devas Corniscas sacrum on a terminal cippus found in Trastevere. Nothing more is known of this cult centre. In Catull. 25. 5, it has been proposed to read cum Diva Mulier alites (Ellis, aries, noting that the passage is corrupt) ostendit oscitantes, and to refer it to this cult.
 
3 - 143 CRYPTA BALBI.
Mentioned only in the Notitia (Reg. , but probably built by Balbus in B.C. at the same time as his theatre (q.v.). The name is best explained as a term used for a vaulted passage lighted from above, and this building may have been a sort of ambulatory round the cavea of the theatre. No traces of it have been found, and the remains in the Via dei Calderari, formerly identified as the Crypta Balbi, belong to another structure.
 
3 - 144 CURIA ACCULEIA.
Mentioned once by Varro as the place where the Angeronalia were celebrated. As this festival is also said to have been celebrated at the sacellum Volupiae, curia Acculeia was probably either another name for the sacellum, or an adjacent structure, standing near the point where the Nova via entered the Velabrum.
 
3 - 145 CURIA ATHLETARUM.
The headquarters, under the empire, of the organised athletes of Rome. The name, curia athletarum (acletarum) appears in one Latin inscription; on numerous Greek inscriptions it appears. These inscriptions were found between S. Pietro in Vincoli and S. Martino, indicating that the building was in the immediate vicinity of the thermae Traianae, and an attempt has been made to identify it with a basilica-shaped hall just north of the thermae. This curia was given to the association in 143 A.D. by the Emperor Antoninus Pius.
 
3 - 146 CURIA CALABRA.
A hall of assembly on the Capitoline hill, where, before the publication of the calendar, on the Kalends of each month the pontifex minor made a public announcement of the day on which the Nones would fall. The name was derived from calare, both because the pontifex called the people together (comitia calata), and because he called out the day of the Nones. As curia was regularly used in early times for halls where the representatives of the curiae, or the senate, assembled, it seems probable that originally this curia bore the same relation to the senate and comitia Calata that the curia Hostilia did to the senate and comitia Curiata. Festus says that in the curia Calabra tantum ratio sacrorum gerebatur, and Macrobius that the pontifex minor sacrificed here to Juno on the Kalends of each month. It was near the casa Romuli, and appears in Lydus.
 
3 - 147 CURIA HOSTILIA.
The original senate house of Rome, situated on the north side of the COMITIUM: comitium vestibulum curiae. Its construction was ascribed to Tullus Hostilius, and it was regularly called the curia Hostilia. It was approached by a flight of steps.

On its side wall, or at one side of it (in latere curiae), was a painting of the victory of M. Valerius Messala over Hiero and the Carthaginians in 263 B.C. It was restored by Sulla in 80 B.C. and somewhat enlarged, the statues of Pythagoras and Alcibiades, which had stood at the corners of the Comitium, being removed. In 52 B.C. it was burnt down by the partisans of Clodius and rebuilt by Sulla's son Faustus.

In 44 B.C. it was decided to build a new curia. Part of its site was occupied by the temple of FELICITAS (q.v.). The curia was, like the comitium, inaugurated as a templum.

According to what we know of the republican buildings which surrounded the comitium, the curia Hostilia should have faced due south, and its position in regard to other monuments is given by Plin. NH vii. 212, which shows either that it was necessarily orientated in the same way as the curia Iulia, or, more probably, that it lay further north.

As to its orientation, however, we must note that (a) that of the ROSTRA VETERA (q.v.) varied considerably at different times (see COMITIUM, p. 135), (b) that a flight of tufa steps 1.24 metre high, on practically the same orientation as that of the curia Iulia, leads down to the second level of the comitium (10.85 to 10.90 metres above sea-level), which may belong to an earlier curia; (c) that the fine travertine pavement generally attributed to Faustus Sulla has quite a different orientation from either.
 
3 - 148 CURIA IULIA.
The new senate house begun by Julius Caesar in 44 B.C. just before his assassination and continued by the triumvirs. It was completed and dedicated in 29 B.C. by Augustus. Like its predecessor, the curia Hostilia, and the curia Pompeia, it was inaugurated as a templum. Augustus set up in it a statue of Victory and built an annex called the CHALCIDICUM (q.v.). The Secretarium Senatus, another annex of the senate house, probably also formed part of the structure of Augustus, though we have no direct evidence of its existence before the time of Diocletian.

The curia Iulia, like the older curia, was built in comitio; in fact several senatus consulta which have come down to us in their Greek form state that they were voted ἐν κομετίῳ; one under Hadrian, however, is more explicit.

The curia as restored by Augustus is believed by Hulsen, who had previously connected them with the basilica Iulia, to be represented in coins of 29-27 B.C.. The statue of Victory standing on a globe which came from Tarentum is shown in the apex of the pediment, and is represented on other coins of the same date.

Domitian restored the curia in 94 A.D., and it was no doubt he who took the opportunity of dedicating the Chalcidicum to his patron goddess Minerva, whence it acquired the name of Atrium Minervae. This curia is represented in the famous Anaglypha Traiani (see ROSTRA). It is perhaps also represented in one of the reliefs of the arch of Benevento. The curia was burnt down in the fire of Carinus, and rebuilt by Diocletian, and the existing building dates from his time.

We learn from sixteenth century drawings that it formed part of a group with the Atrium Minervae and the Secretarium Senatus.

The curia proper is a hall 25.20 metres by 17.61 metres, of brick-faced concrete, with a huge buttress at each angle; the lower part of the front wall was decorated with slabs of marble, while the upper part (like the exterior of the thermae of Caracalla and Diocletian) was covered with stucco in imitation of white marble blocks with heavily draughted joints. The travertine consoles and the brick cornice which they support (which are continued round the triangular pediment) were also coated with stucco. A flight of steps led up to the entrance door, to which belonged an epistyle bearing the inscription: imperante... neratius in... curiam senatus... The second line no doubt contained the name of an unknown praefectus urbi (fifth century). When the building became a church, a metrical (?) inscription was painted over it, of which only the first word, aspice, is preserved. Over the door were three large windows. A small portion of the pavement of the interior, of various coloured marbles, was recently exposed to view, but covered up again.

The marble facing of the internal walls was destroyed in 1562. The brick facing of the exterior and the cornice were coated with stucco to represent marble (ib.), just as was the case in the Thermae of Diocletian.

In 303 A.D. there were erected in front of the curia, outside the comitium, two colossal columns, in celebration of the vicennalia and decennalia of Diocletian and his colleagues in the empire. The first base, found in 1490, is lost; but the second, decorated with inferior reliefs which was found in 1547, still lies not far from the niger lapis. For a glass cup commemorating the same vicennalia see BC 1882, 180-19o.

Near here are also fragments of a large base for a quadriga erected in honour of Arcadius and Honorius after Stilicho's victory over Gildo in Africa in 398 A.D. and another inscription celebrating Stilicho's victory over Radagaisus at Pollentia in 403 A.D..

The church of S. Adriano was founded in the curia by Honorius I, who added the apse. It is called in tribus fatis from a group of the three fates which stood near the temple of Janus. After this several bodies were buried in niches cut in the front wall, in the concrete core of the steps, and in front of them, on the pavement of the comitium. The doorway, 5.90 metres in height, probably remained in use until after the fire of Robert Guiscard the Norman in 1087, when its level was raised by 3.25 metres: and so it remained until the restoration of the church in 1654, when it was raised again by about the same amount. When the ancient bronze doors were removed to the Lateran by Borromini a few years later, various coins were found inside them, among which was one of Domitian. Between 1654 and the end of the nineteenth century there has been another rise in level of about 1 metre.

To the left of the curia was the CHALCIDICUM or Atrium Minervae (q.v.) (the last remains of which disappeared when the Via Bonella was made in 1585-90), a courtyard with a colonnade running down each side; while to the north-west again was the Secretarium Senatus, a hall measur- ing 18.by 8.92 metres, with an apse at the north-east end. An inscription shows that it had been restored by Junius Flavianus in 3A.D. and that it was repaired in 4A.D., after its destruction by fire, by the then Praefectus Urbi, Epifanius. The passage of Cassiodorus, Var. iv. 30, curvae porticus, quae iuxta domum palmatam (q.v.) posita, forum in modum areae decenter includit, etc., referred by Jord. to the apse of this building, should more probably be taken to signify the south-western hemicycle of the forum of Trajan.

The ancient basilica of S. Martina, built in the ruins of the Secretarium Senatus, is first mentioned under Hadrian I (772-795). It is called S. Martinae sita intribus fatis under Leo III. It was restored by Pietro da Cortona in 1640 and its level raised, so that the older structure (in which no traces of antiquity are actually visible) serves as the crypt.
 
3 - 149 CURIA ATHLETARUM.
The headquarters, under the empire, of the organised athletes of Rome. The name, curia athletarum (acletarum) appears in one Latin inscription; on numerous Greek inscriptions it appears as Greek. These inscriptions were found between S. Pietro in Vincoli and S. Martino, indicating that the building was in the immediate vicinity of the thermae Traianae, and an attempt has been made to identify it with a basilica-shaped hall just north of the thermae. This curia was given to the association in 143 A.D. by the Emperor Antoninus Pius.
 
3 - 150 CURIA CALABRA.
A hall of assembly on the Capitoline hill, where, before the publication of the calendar, on the Kalends of each month the pontifex minor made a public announcement of the day on which the Nones would fall. The name was derived from calare, both because the pontifex called the people together (comitia calata), and because he called out the day of the Nones. As curia was regularly used in early times for halls where the representatives of the curiae, or the senate, assembled, it seems probable that originally this curia bore the same relation to the senate and comitia Calata that the curia Hostilia did to the senate and comitia Curiata. Festus (49) says that in the curia Calabra tantum ratio sacrorum gerebatur, and Macrobius that the pontifex minor sacrificed here to Juno on the Kalends of each month. It was near the casa Romuli, and appears in Lydus as Greek.
 
3 - 151 Circus of Maxentius (Caracalla).

From Wikipedia:

The Circus of Maxentius (known until the 19th century as the Circus of Caracalla) is an ancient structure in Rome, Italy; it is part of a complex of buildings erected by emperor Maxentius on the Via Appia between AD 306 and 312. It is situated between the second and third miles of the Via Appia between the basilica and catacombs of San Sebastiano and the imposing late republican tomb of Caecilia Metella, which dominates the hill that rises immediately to the east of the complex. It is part of the Parco Regionale Appia Antica (Appian Way Regional Park).

The Circus itself is the best preserved in the area of Rome, and is second only in size to the Circus Maximus in Rome. The only games recorded at the circus were its inaugural ones and these are generally thought to have been funerary in character. They would have been held in honour of Maxentius' son Valerius Romulus, who died in AD 309 at a very young age and who was probably interred in the adjacent cylindrical tomb (tomb of Romulus). The imperial box (pulvinar) of the circus is connected, via a covered portico, to the villa of Maxentius, whose scant remains are today obscured by dense foliage, except for the apse of the basilical audience hall, which pokes out from the tree tops. The complex was probably never used after the death of Maxentius in AD 3(archaeological excavations indicate the tracks were covered in sand already in antiquity).

The circus is constructed, after the fashion of many Roman buildings of this period, in concrete faced with opus vittatum. The putlog holes which held the scaffolding are evident in many places in the walls, which stand several metres high in places. The modern-day visitor enters the circus from the west end, where the remains of the two still imposing towers are located. These would have contained the mechanism for raising the carceres(starting gates), which were positioned on an arcuated course between the towers. Once out of the gates, the chariots would race down the track, the full 503 metres (550 yd) length of which can still be seen. The track was excavated in the 19th century by Antonio Nibby, whose discovery of an inscription to the 'divine Romulus' led to the circus being positively identified with Maxentius. The spina, the barrier running down the middle of the track, is exactly 1000 Roman feet (296 m) long, and would have been cased in marble. Its many ornaments, including cones, metae and obelisks, would have cast strange, Piranesi-esque shadows across the track in the late afternoon sun. In the centre stood the Obelisk of Domitian which Maxentius presumably had moved from the Isaeum as part of the tribute to his son. Covered in hieroglyphs and lying broken in five pieces it was much discussed during the Renaissance and engraved by Etienne du Perac among others. The Collector Earl of Arundel paid a deposit for the pieces in the 1630s and attempted to have them removed to London but Urban VIII forbad its export and his successor Innocent X had it erected in the Piazza Navona by Bernini. The track's outer walls were laid out to be wider at the start to allow the racers to spread out before reaching the spina, and were also made wider at the point of the turn, which accommodated the turning circle of the chariots. At the east end of the track is a small triumphal arch, in which exposed opus vittatum work can be seen. The judges' box was located about two-thirds of the way down on the southern side of the track, where it would have been in clear sight of the finishing line. The imperial box, the remains of which are identifiable, was situated in the usual fashion to give the most dramatic views of the race. Directly opposite the imperial box, in the south track wall, there is a small arch, through which can be seen the Tomb of Caecilia Metella. From the height of the box the tomb would have been entirely visible, and it has been argued that the circus, which is curiously positioned relative to contemporary and existing structures, was purposely skewed in order to integrate the tomb into the Maxentian architectural scheme.

The circus-complex of Maxentius as originally conceived can be partly understood as an elaborate imperial version of the type of elite residences that appear in Rome and throughout the provinces in late antiquity, whose pretensions are evidenced in the regular presence of large audience halls, familial tombs and circus-shaped structures - the Villa Gordiani, also in Rome, and the complex at Piazza Armerina in Sicily, are two examples. The progenitor of these residences was of course the Palatine complex in Rome, where Maxentius himself made some alterations to the palace in which he played out public life. The most instructive imperial parallel for the Via Appia complex is that of Maxentius's contemporary Galerius at Thessaloniki, though Diocletian's Palace at Split furnishes some useful comparisons.

The complex may well have changed in use and character following the death of Romulus; the mausoleum, surely intended for Maxentius himself, as were the mausolea built by Galerius and Diocletian intended for themselves whilst still alive, now received as its occupant Maxentius' only son. The inaugural games became funeral games, and these, like the circus, were dedicated to the now deified Romulus. The pervasive emphasis of death and apotheosis has led to the argument that the whole complex became overwhelmingly funerary in character from this point, and that the memorial references generated by Romulus extend, spatially and ideologically, to the heart of Rome. Maxentius died just three years after Romulus, at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, when he was defeated by Constantine the Great, who then expropriated the property.

The circus is under the care of the Soprintendenza Archeologica di Roma, and is open to the public. It is accessible via a bus which runs regularly from the Metropolitana stop called Colli Albani, or by the 1bus from Piazza Venezia. The most up-to-date guides, in English and Italian, are provided by Coarelli, but Claridge's account is also clear and succinct, as well as being relatively recent. For in-depth research and references, volume one of Steinby's Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae is the starting point.
 
3 - 152 Circus Varianus.

From Wikipedia.

Circus Varianus was a Roman circus, possibly started around the time of Caracalla, residing in the palatial villa complex known as the Sessorium, beside the Amphitheatrum Castrense. This circus has been identified as the space in which Elagabalus raced horses under the family name of Varius, lending the site the name of "Circus Varianus." The remnants of the circus survive to the south of Porta Maggiore, next to the Aurelian Wall, near the church of Santa Croce in Gerusalemme. The dimensions of the circus measure 565 x 125 meters, just slightly smaller than the Circus Maximus (600 x 150 m).

According to records in the 16th century, an obelisk was found at the site, measuring 9.25 meters tall. It had originally been located at the tomb of Antinous and was moved in the reign of Elagabalus. After being discovered, the obelisk was moved to the Palazzo Barberini in 1932, from there to the Vatican in 1769, and reached Monte Pincio in 1822 where it resides currently.
 
 
3 - 153 Campus (Hill) Vaticanus.

From Wikipedia.

Vatican Hill (Latin: Mons Vaticanus, Italian: Colle Vaticano) is a hill located across the Tiber river from the traditional seven hills of Rome. It is the location of St. Peter's Basilica.

Vatican Hill (top left corner) in The Miraculous Draught of Fishes (1519), from the Acts of the Apostles tapestryseries by the Flemish workshop of Pieter van Endigen Aelst, based on Raphael
Detail of Vatican Hill

The ancient Romans had several opinions about the derivation of the Latin word Vaticanus. Varro (1st century BC) connected it to a Deus Vaticanus or Vagitanus, a Roman deity thought to endow infants with the capacity for speech evidenced by their first wail (vagitus, the first syllableof which is pronounced wa in Classical Latin). Varro's rather complicated explanation relates this function to the tutelary deity of the place and to the advanced powers of speech possessed by a prophet (vates), as preserved by the later antiquarian Aulus Gellius:

We have been told that the word Vatican is applied to the hill, and the deity who presides over it, from the vaticinia, or prophecies, which took place there by the power and inspiration of the god; but Marcus Varro, in his book on Divine Things, gives another reason for this name. "As Aius," says he, "was called a deity, and an altar was built to his honour in the lowest part of the new road, because in that place a voice from heaven was heard, so this deity was called Vaticanus, because he presided over the principles of the human voice; for infants, as soon as they are born, make the sound which forms the first syllable in Vaticanus, and are therefore said vagire (to cry) which word expresses the noise which an infant first makes".

St. Augustine, who was familiar with Varro's works on ancient Roman theology, mentions this deity three times in The City of God.

Vaticanus is more likely to derive in fact from the name of an Etruscan settlement, possibly called Vatica or Vaticum, located in the general area the Romans called vaticanus ager, "Vatican territory". If such a settlement existed, however, no trace of it has been discovered. The consular fasti preserve a personal name Vaticanus in the mid-5th century BC, of unknown relation to the place name.

Topography of ancient Rome

Vaticanus Mons (or Vaticanus Collis) was most often a name in Classical Latin for the Janiculum. Cicero uses the plural form Vaticani Montes in a context that seems to include the modern Vatican Hill as well as the Monte Mario and the Janiculan hill.

The Vaticanum or Campus Vaticanus was originally a level area between the Vaticanus Mons and the Tiber. During the Republican era, it was an unwholesome site frequented by the destitute. Caligula and Nero used the area for chariot exercises, as at the Gaianum, and renewal was encouraged by the building of the Circus of Nero, also known as the Circus Vaticanus or simply the Vaticanum. The location of tombs near the Circus Vaticanus is mentioned in a few late sources.

The Vaticanum was also the site of the Phrygianum, a temple of the Magna Mater goddess Cybele. Although secondary to this deity's main worship on the Palatine Hill, this temple gained such fame in the ancient world that both Lyon, in Gaul, and Mainz, in Germany called their own Magna Mater compounds "Vaticanum" in imitation. Remnants of this structure were encountered in the Seventeenth Century reconstruction of St. Peter's Square.

Vaticanus Mons came to refer to the modern Vatican Hill as a result of calling the whole area the "Vatican" (Vaticanum). Christian usage of the name was spurred by the martyrdom of St. Peter there. Beginning in the early 4th century AD, construction began on the Old St. Peter's Basilica over a cemetery that is the traditional site of St. Peter's tomb. Around this time, the name Vaticanus Mons was established in its modern usage, and the Janiculum hill was distinguished from it as the Ianiculensis Mons.

Another cemetery nearby was opened to the public on October 2006 to commemorate the 500th anniversary of the Vatican Museums.

Christian history

The Vatican Hill was included within the city limits of Rome during the reign of Pope Leo IV, who, between 848 and 852, expanded the city walls to protect St. Peter's Basilica and the Vatican. Thus, Vatican Hill has been within the walls and city limits of Rome for over 1100 years. Until the Lateran Treaties in 1929 it was part of the Rione of Borgo.

Before the Avignon Papacy (1305–1378), the headquarters of the Holy See were located at the Lateran Palace. After the Avignon Papacy the church administration moved to Vatican Hill and the papal palace was (until 187 the Quirinal Palace, upon the Quirinal Hill. Since 1929, part of the Vatican Hill is the site of the State of the Vatican City. However, the cathedral of the Bishop of Rome, the Pope, is not St. Peter's in the Vatican, but Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano, which is extra-territorially linked, as indicated in the Lateran Pacts signed with the Italian state in 1929, with the Holy See.
 
3 - 154 Pons Milvius.

From Wikipedia:

The Milvian (or Mulvian) Bridge (Italian: Ponte Molle or Ponte Milvio, Latin: Pons Milvius or Pons Mulvius) is a bridge over the Tiber in northern Rome, Italy. It was an economically and strategically important bridge in the era of the Roman Empire and was the site of the famous Battle of the Milvian Bridge.

A bridge was built by consul Gaius Claudius Nero in 206 BC after he had defeated the Carthaginian army in the Battle of the Metaurus. In 1BC, consul Marcus Aemilius Scaurus built a new bridge of stone in the same position, demolishing the old one. In 63 BC, letters from the conspirators of the Catiline conspiracy were intercepted here, allowing Cicero to read them to the Roman Senate the next day. In AD 312, Constantine I defeated his stronger rival Maxentius between this bridge and Saxa Rubra, in the famous Battle of the Milvian Bridge.

During the Middle Ages, the bridge was renovated by a monk named Acuzio, and in 1429 Pope Martin V asked a famous architect, Francesco da Genazzano, to repair it because it was collapsing. During the 18th and 19th centuries, the bridge was modified by two architects, Giuseppe Valadierand Domenico Pigiani.

The bridge was badly damaged in 1849 by Garibaldi's troops, in an attempt to block a French invasion, and later repaired by Pope Pius IX in 1850.

In 2000s, the bridge began attracting couples, who use a lamppost on the bridge to attach love padlocks as a token of love. The ritual involves the couple locking the padlock to the lamppost, then throwing the key behind them into the Tiber. The ritual was invented by author Federico Moccia for his popular book and movie "I Want You".

After April 13, 2007, couples had to stop this habit because that day the lamppost, due to the weight of all padlocks, partially collapsed. However, couples decided to attach their padlocks elsewhere. In fact, all around the bridge, road posts and even garbage bins have been used to place these love padlocks. As an online replacement, a web site has been created allowing couples to use virtual padlocks. In 2007, the mayor of Rome introduced a 50 euro fine on couples found attaching padlocks to the bridge. Similar love padlocks traditions have appeared in Italy and the rest of Europe.

In September 2012, the city council decided to remove all padlocks by force. There was an increasing risk that the bridge would collapse under the weight.
 
3 - 155 CURIA HOSTILIA.
The original senate house of Rome, situated on the north side of the COMITIUM (q.v.); comitium vestibulum curiae. Its construction was ascribed to Tullus Hostilius, and it was regularly called the curia Hostilia. It was approached by a flight of steps.

On its side wall, or at one side of it (in latere curiae), was a painting of the victory of M. Valerius Messala over Hiero and the Carthaginians in 263 B.C. It was restored by Sulla in 80 B.C. and somewhat enlarged, the statues of Pythagoras and Alcibiades, which had stood at the corners of the Comitium, being removed. In 52 B.C. it was burnt down by the partisans of Clodius and rebuilt by Sulla's son Faustus.

In 44 B.C. it was decided to build a new curia. Part of its site was occupied by the temple of FELICITAS(q.v.). The curia was, like the comitium, inaugurated as a templum.

According to what we know of the republican buildings which surrounded the comitium, the curia Hostilia should have faced due south, and its position in regard to other monuments is given by Plin., which shows either that it was necessarily orientated in the same way as the curia Iulia (Jord. 2. 327), or, more probably, that it lay further north.

As to its orientation, however, we must note that (a) that of the ROSTRA VETERA (q.v.) varied considerably at different times (see COMITIUM, p. 135), (b) that a flight of tufa steps 1.24 metre high, on practically the same orientation as that of the curia Iulia, leads down to the second level of the comitium (10.85 to 10.90 metres above sea-level), which may belong to an earlier curia (Pl. 235, fig. 49) ; (c) that the fine travertine pavement generally attributed to Faustus Sulla has quite a different orientation from either.
 
3 - 156 CURIA IULIA.
The new senate house begun by Julius Caesar in 44 B.C. just before his assassination and continued by the triumvirs. It was completed and dedicated in 29 B.C. by Augustus. Like its predecessor, the curia Hostilia, and the curia Pompeia, it was inaugurated as a templum. Augustus set up in it a statue of Victory and built an annex called the CHALCIDICUM (q.v.). The Secretarium Senatus, another annex of the senate house, probably also formed part of the structure of Augustus, though we have no direct evidence of its existence before the time of Diocletian.

The curia Iulia, like the older curia, was built in comitio; in fact several senatus consulta which have come down to us in their Greek form state that they were voted ἐν κομετίῳ; one under Hadrian, however, is more explicit.

The curia as restored by Augustus is believed by Hulsen, who had previously connected them with the basilica Iulia, to be represented in coins of 29-27 B.C.. The statue of Victory standing on a globe which came from Tarentum is shown in the apex of the pediment, and is represented on other coins of the same date.

Domitian restored the curia in 94 A.D., and it was no doubt he who took the opportunity of dedicating the Chalcidicum to his patron goddess Minerva, whence it acquired the name of Atrium Minervae. This curia is represented in the famous Anaglypha Traiani (see ROSTRA). It is perhaps also represented in one of the reliefs of the arch of Benevento. The curia was burnt down in the fire of Carinus, and rebuilt by Diocletian, and the existing building dates from his time.

We learn from sixteenth century drawings that it formed part of a group with the Atrium Minervae and the Secretarium Senatus.

The curia proper is a hall 25.20 metres by 17.61 metres, of brick-faced concrete, with a huge buttress at each angle; the lower part of the front wall was decorated with slabs of marble, while the upper part (like the exterior of the thermae of Caracalla and Diocletian) was covered with stucco in imitation of white marble blocks with heavily draughted joints. The travertine consoles and the brick cornice which they support (which are continued round the triangular pediment) were also coated with stucco. A flight of steps led up to the entrance door, to which belonged an epistyle bearing the inscription: imperante... neratius in... curiam senatus... The second line no doubt contained the name of an unknown praefectus urbi (fifth century). When the building became a church, a metrical (?) inscription was painted over it, of which only the first word, aspice, is preserved. Over the door were three large windows. A small portion of the pavement of the interior, of various coloured marbles, was recently exposed to view, but covered up again.

The marble facing of the internal walls was destroyed in 1562. The brick facing of the exterior and the cornice were coated with stucco to represent marble (ib.), just as was the case in the Thermae of Diocletian.

In 303 A.D. there were erected in front of the curia, outside the comitium, two colossal columns, in celebration of the vicennalia and decennalia of Diocletian and his colleagues in the empire. The first base, found in 1490, is lost; but the second, decorated with inferior reliefs (one of which represents the suovetaurilia, in imitation of the Trajanic slabs) which was found in 1547, still lies not far from the niger lapis. For a glass cup commemorating the same vicennalia see BC 1882, 180-19o.

Near here are also fragments of a large base for a quadriga erected in honour of Arcadius and Honorius after Stilicho's victory over Gildo in Africa in 398 A.D. and another inscription celebrating Stilicho's victory over Radagaisus at Pollentia in 403 A.D..

The church of S. Adriano was founded in the curia by Honorius I (625-638), who added the apse. It is called in tribus fatis from a group of the three fates which stood near the temple of Janus. After this several bodies were buried in niches cut in the front wall, in the concrete core of the steps, and in front of them, on the pavement of the comitium. The doorway, 5.90 metres in height, probably remained in use until after the fire of Robert Guiscard the Norman in 1087, when its level was raised by 3.25 metres: and so it remained (with steps descending into the church from the higher ground outside) until the restoration of the church in 1654, when it was raised again by about the same amount. When the ancient bronze doors were removed to the Lateran by Borromini a few years later, various coins were found inside them, among which was one of Domitian. Between 1654 and the end of the nineteenth century there has been another rise in level of about 1 metre.

To the left of the curia was the CHALCIDICUM or Atrium Minervae (q.v.) (the last remains of which disappeared when the Via Bonella was made in 1585-90), a courtyard with a colonnade running down each side; while to the north-west again was the Secretarium Senatus, a hall measur- ing 18.by 8.92 metres, with an apse at the north-east end. An inscription shows that it had been restored by Junius Flavianus in 3A.D. and that it was repaired in 4A.D., after its destruction by fire, by the then Praefectus Urbi, Epifanius. The passage of Cassiodorus, referred by Jord., should more probably be taken to signify the south-western hemicycle of the forum of Trajan.

The ancient basilica of S. Martina, built in the ruins of the Secretarium Senatus, is first mentioned under Hadrian I (772-795). It is called S. Martinae sita intribus fatis under Leo III. It was restored by Pietro da Cortona in 1640 and its level raised, so that the older structure (in which no traces of antiquity are actually visible) serves as the crypt.
 
3 - 157 CURIAE NOVAE.
The new sanctuary of the curies mentioned only by Festus (17, who says that it was built proxime COMPITUM FABRICIUM (q.v.) because the curiae veteres had become too small, but that seven curies refused to move. The new building probably stood east of the veteres, on the Caelian, near the vicus Fabricii 
 
3 - 158 CURIA OCTAVIAE.
Mentioned only once in connection with a statue of Cupid. It was probably a hall in the PORTICUS OCTAVIAE (q.v.), and perhaps identical with the SCHOLA OCTAVIAE (q.v.).
 
3 - 158 CURIA IN PALATIO.
Apparently a hall on the Palatine, presumably in the domus Augustiana, where the senate sometimes met. See DOMUS AUGUSTI.
 
3 - 159 CURIA POMPEI.
A hall in the PORTICUS POMPEI (q.v.), probably one of its exedrae, where the senate sometimes met, and where Caesar was murdered. The statue of Pompeius that stood in the exedra was removed by Augustus, who walled up the curia as a locus sceleratus for a theory that this curia projected from the south-east corner of the porticus and is represented on frg. 140 of the Marble Plan.
 
3 - 160 CURIA POMPILIANA.
Another name for the curia Iulia, used only in Hist. Aug.. It may denote the growth of a late tradition that attributed the building of the first curia to Numa rather than Tullus. A hint that this was an intentional substitution may possibly be found in Ammianus' phrase: Pompiliani redierit securitastemporis. But it is more probably a mere invention
 
3 - 161 CURIA SALIORUM.
The headquarters of the salii Palatini, in which the lituus of Romulus was kept. Its exact position on the Palatine is unknown. The salii Collini had a similar building, probably on the Quirinal.
 
3 - 162 CURIA TIFATA.
see TIFATA CURIA.
 
3 - 163 CURIAE VETERES.
The earliest sanctuary of the curies, and mentioned by Tacitus as one point in the Palatine pomerium. It became too small, and the CURIAE NOVAE (q.v.) was built, but seven curies refused to leave the old place of assembly. It was probably at the north-east corner of the Palatine, where the vicus Curiarum is to be located, opposite the northern end of the Caelian. Since Augustus is said to have been born in curiis veteribus, and also ad capita bubula (Suet. Aug. 5), these two must have been close together.
 
3 - 164 CYBELE, TIIOLUS.
see MAGNA MATER.
 
4 D.
4 - 1 DEA CARNA, SACRUM.
A temple of Dea Carna (quae vitalibus, i.e. humanis, praeest) said to have been vowed by L. Junius Brutus on 1st June in the first year of the republic, and dedicated by him some time afterwards. It was on the Caelian, and seems to have been standing in the third century 
 
4 - 2 DEA NAENIA, SACELLUM.
A shrine of Naenia, the goddess of lamentation for the dead, which stood outside the porta Viminalis but is otherwise unknown.
 
4 - 3 DEA SATRIANA, LUCUS.
the grove of a deity of the gens Satria, known only from an inscription now lost which was said to have been found near S. Peter's
 
4 - 4 DEA SURIA, TEMPLUM.
A temple of the 'Syrian goddess' (Atargatis, the paredros of Hadad) situated on the right bank of the Tiber. Templumlasurae, in the time of Alexander Severus. The provenance of the inscriptions relating to the cult is uncertain.

The goddess is also represented on a base which bears a dedication to Jupiter Heliopolitanus, found in the temple of the latter divinity (q.v.), which was superimposed on the lucus Furrinae, where a dedication in his honour under the Syrian name Hadad was also found; so that she was actually worshipped there. But we know that Syrian deities were also worshipped on the Via Portuensis, where the rest of the inscriptions may have been found.
 

4 - 5 DEA VIRIPLACA, SACELLUM
A shrine on the Palatine, known only from one reference.
 
4 - 6 DECEM TABERNAE
A locality, perhaps a street, in Region VI, mentioned only in the Regionary Catalogue. The name is also said to have occurred on an inscription that was to be seen in the sixteenth century. It is marked on Bufalini's plan of the city, and was probably on the Viminal, near the churches of S. Lorenzo in Panisperna and S. Agata dei Goti.
 
4 - 7 DECENNENSES
a name found on an inscription of c. 370 A.D., applied to those who dwelt in the Decennium or Decenniae. This was the swampy depression south-west of the Lateran, outside the Aurelian wall, through which the Marrana flows. Decennium is a conjectural form; Decenniae appears in mediaeval documents 
 
4 - 8 DEI CONSENTES
see PORTICUS DEORUM CONSENTIUM.
 
4 - 9 DIAETAE MAMMAEAE
apartments constructed by the Emperor Alexander Severus on the Palatine for his mother, Mammaea, and popularly known as ad Mammam(s). V. Domaszewski, however, regards them as a mere invention.
 
4 - 10 DIANA
A shrine in the vicus Patricius, the only one of the many temples of Diana into which men were not allowed to enter.
 
4 - 11 DIANA, AEDES
The temple of Diana on the Aventine ascribed by tradition to Servius Tullius, who assembled here the representatives of the surrounding Latin towns and persuaded them to build this temple as the common sanctuary of the league, in imitation of the temple of Diana at Ephesus and its relation to the Ionian cities. It was the oldest and most important temple on the Aventine, ordinarily known as Diana Aventina, or Aventinensis, and the Aventine itself was called collis Dianae. It was near the thermae Suranae and therefore probably just west of the church of S. Prisca on the clivus Publicius. Besides aedes, it is referred to as templum. The day of its dedication was 13th August, celebrated throughout Italy, especially by slaves.

This temple was rebuilt by L. Cornificius during the reign of Augustus (Suct. Aug. 29). In this form it may be shown on coins; and it is probably represented under the name aedes Dianae Cornificianae on a fragment ( of the Marble Plan, where it is drawn as octostyle and dipteral, surrounded by a double colonnade. It was standing in the fourth century (Not. Reg. XIII), but no trace of it has been found. According to Censorinus (loc. cit.) one of the oldest sun-dials in Rome was on this temple, and it contained a wooden statue resembling that of Diana at Ephesus brought to Rome from Marseilles, and another of marble.

In the Augustan period it contained a bronze stele on which was engraved the compact between Rome and the Latin cities, probably a copy of the original, and another with the lex Icilia de Aventino publicando of 456 B.C.. It must also have contained a lex arae Dianae, which served as a model for other communities, and probably other ancient documents. The date of the founding of this temple, and its real significance, have been the subject of much discussion
 
4 - 12 DIANA, AEDES
A temple vowed by M. Aemilius Lepidus in 187 B.C. and dedicated by him in 179 in circo Flaminio on 23rd December. It probably stood just west of the circus. For an identification with one of the two temples of S. Nicola a' Cesarini.
 
4 - 13 DIANA, SACELLUM
A shrine of Diana on the Caeliolus, called by Cicero  maximum etsanctissimum. It was destroyed by L. Calpurnius Piso when consul in 58 B.C. It was probably dedicated originally by some private person or family. Its exact site is not known
 
4 - 14 DEA SATRIANA, LUCUS
The grove of a deity of the gens Satria, known only from an inscription now lost which was said to have been found near S. Peter's.
 
4 - 15 DEA SURIA, TEMPLUM
a temple of the 'Syrian goddess' (Atargatis, the paredros of Hadad) situated on the right bank of the Tiber. Suet. Nero 56 calls Nero ' religionum usque quaque contemptorpraeter unius Deae Syriae' ; but this is not sufficient to prove the existence of the temple at that time; and we must pass on to the mention of it, under the corrupt form templumlasurae, in the time of Alexander Severus. The provenance of the inscriptions relating to the cult is uncertain.

The goddess is also represented on a base which bears a dedication to Jupiter Heliopolitanus, found in the temple of the latter divinity (q.v.), which was superimposed on the lucus Furrinae, where a dedication in his honour under the Syrian name Hadad was also found; so that she was actually worshipped there. But we know that Syrian deities were also worshipped on the Via Portuensis, where the rest of the inscriptions may have been found.
 
4 - 16 DEA VIRIPLACA, SACELLUM
A shrine on the Palatine, known only from one reference.
 
4 - 17 Catacombs of Rome.

From Wikipedia.

The Catacombs of Rome (Italian: Catacombe di Roma) are ancient catacombs, underground burial places under Rome, Italy, of which there are at least forty, some discovered only in recent decades. Though most famous for Christian burials, either in separate catacombs or mixed together, people of all the Roman religions are buried in them, beginning in the 2nd century AD, mainly as a response to overcrowding and shortage of land. The Etruscans, like many other European peoples, used to bury their dead in underground chambers. The original Roman custom was cremation, after which the burnt remains were kept in a pot, ash-chest or urn, often in a columbarium. From about the 2nd century AD, inhumation (burial of unburnt remains) became more fashionable, in graves or sarcophagi, often elaborately carved, for those who could afford them. Christians also preferred burial to cremation because of their belief in bodily resurrection at the Second Coming.

The Christian catacombs are extremely important for the art history of Early Christian art, as they contain the great majority of examples from before about 400 AD, in fresco and sculpture, as well as gold glass medallions (these, like most bodies, have been removed). The Jewish catacombs are similarly important for the study of Jewish culture at this period. A number of dubious relics of catacomb saints were promoted after the rediscovery of the catacombs.

Precursors

The Etruscans, like many other European people, used to bury their dead in underground chambers. The original Roman custom was cremation, after which the burnt remains were kept in a pot, ash-chest or urn, often in a columbarium. From about the 2nd century AD, inhumation (burial of unburnt remains) became more fashionable, in graves or sarcophagi, often elaborately carved, for those who could afford them. Christians also preferred burial to cremation because of their belief in bodily resurrection.

Christian catacombs

The first large-scale catacombs in the vicinity of Rome were excavated from the 2nd century onwards. They were carved through tufo, a soft volcanic rock, outside the walls of the city, because Roman law forbade burial places within city limits. The pagan custom was to incinerate corpses, while early Christians and Jews buried the dead. Since most Christians and Jews at that time belonged to the lower classes or were slaves, they usually lacked the resources to buy land for burial purposes. Instead, networks of tunnels were dug in the deep layers of tufo which occurred naturally on the outskirts of Rome. At first, these tunnels were probably not used for regular worship, but simply for burial and, extending pre-existing Roman customs, for memorial services and celebrations of the anniversaries of Christian martyrs. There are sixty known subterranean burial chambers in Rome. They were built outside the walls along main Roman roads, like the Via Appia, the Via Ostiense, the Via Labicana, the Via Tiburtina, and the Via Nomentana. Names of the catacombs – like St Calixtus and St Sebastian, which is alongside Via Appia – refer to martyrs that may have been buried there. About 80% of the excavations used for Christian burials date to after the time of the persecutions.need quotation to verify

Excavators (fossors), no doubt slaves,citation needed built vast systems of galleries and passages on top of each other. They lie 7–metres (23–62 ft) below the surface in an area of more than 2.4 square kilometres (590 acres). Narrow steps that descend as many as four stories join the levels. Passages are about 2.5 by 1 metre (8.2 ft × 3.3 ft). Burial niches (loculi) were carved into walls. They are 40–60 centimetres (16–24 in) high and 120–150 centimetres (47–59 in) long.citation needed Bodies were placed in chambers in stone sarcophagi in their clothes and bound in linen. Then the chamber was sealed with a slab bearing the name, age and the day of death. The fresco decorations provide the main surviving evidence for Early Christian art, and initially show typically Roman styles used for decorating homes - with secular iconography adapted to a religious function. The catacomb of Saint Agnes is a small church. Some families were able to construct cubicula which would house various loculi and the architectural elements of the space would offer a support for decoration. Another excellent place for artistic programs were the arcosolia.

Decline and rediscovery.

In 380, Christianity became a state religion. At first, many still desired to be buried in chambers alongside the martyrs. However, the practice of catacomb burial declined slowly, and the dead were increasingly buried in church cemeteries. In the 6th century catacombs were used only for martyrs’ memorial services, though some paintings were added as late as the 7th century, for example a Saint Stephen in the Catacomb of Commodilla. Apparently Ostrogoths, Vandals and Lombards that sacked Rome also violated the catacombs, presumably looking for valuables. By the 10th century catacombs were practically abandoned, and holy relics were transferred to above-ground basilicas.

In the intervening centuries they remained forgotten until they were accidentally rediscovered in 1578, after which Antonio Bosio spent decades exploring and researching them for his Roma Sotterranea (163. Archeologist Giovanni Battista de Rossi (1822–189 published the first extensive professional studies about catacombs. In 1956 and 1959 Italian authorities found more catacombs near Rome. The catacombs have become an important monument of the early Christian church.

Today.

Currently, maintenance of the catacombs is in the hands of the papacy, which has invested in the Salesians of Don Bosco the supervision of the Catacombs of St. Callixtus on the outskirts of Rome.

Responsibility for the Christian catacombs lies with the Pontifical Commission of Sacred Archaeology (Pontificia Commissione di Archeologia Sacra), which directs excavations and restorations. Study of the catacombs is directed by the Pontifical Academy of Archaeology.

Typology.

Roman catacombs are made up of underground passages (ambulacra), out of whose walls graves (loculi) were dug. These loculi, generally laid out vertically (pilae), could contain one or more bodies. A loculi large enough to contain two bodies was referred to as a bisomus. Another type of burial, typical of Roman catacombs, was the arcosolium, consisting of a curved niche, enclosed under a carved horizontal marble slab. Cubicula (burial rooms containing loculi all for one family) and cryptae (chapels decorated with frescoes) are also commonly found in catacomb passages. When space began to run out, other graves were also dug in the floor of the corridors - these graves are called formae.

List of catacombs in Rome.

The Roman catacombs, of which there are forty in the suburbs, were built along the consular roads out of Rome, such as the Appian way, the via Ostiense, the via Labicana, the via Tiburtina, and the via Nomentana.

Catacombs of Marcellinus and Peter.

These catacombs are situated on the ancient Via Labicana, today Via Casilina in Rome, Italy, near the church of Santi Marcellino e Pietro ad Duas Lauros. Their name refers to the Christianmartyrs Marcellinus and Peter who, according to tradition, were buried here, near the body of St. Tiburtius.

Catacombs of Domitilla.

Close to the Catacombs of San Callisto are the large and impressive Catacombs of Domitilla (named after Saint Domitilla), spread over kilometres (miles) of underground caves.

The Domitilla Catacombs are unique in that they are the oldest of Rome's underground burial networks, and the only ones to still contain bones. They are also the best preserved and one of the most extensive of all the catacombs. Included in their passages are a 2nd-century fresco of the Last Supper and other valuable artifacts.

There are almost 150,000 bodies buried in the Catacombs of St. Domitilla.

They are the only catacombs that have a subterranean basilica; entrance to the catacombs is achieved through this sunken 4th-century church, at via delle Sette Chiese 282. In the past, the basilica had become unsafe, and was abandoned in the 9th century. It was rediscovered in 1593, and much of it was reconstructed in 1872.

In the beginning of 2009, at the request of the Vatican, the Divine Word Missionaries, a Roman Catholic Society of priests and Brothers, assumed responsibility as administrator of St. Domitilla Catacombs.

Catacombs of Commodilla.

These catacombs, on the Via Ostiensis, contain one of the earliest images of a bearded Christ. They originally held the relics of Saints Felix and Adauctus.

Catacombs of Generosa.

Located on the Campana Road, these catacombs are said to have been the resting place, perhaps temporarily, of Simplicius, Faustinus and Beatrix, Christian Martyrs who died in Rome during the Diocletian persecution (302 or 30.

Catacombs of Praetextatus.

These are found along the via Appia, and were built at the end of 2nd century. They consist of a vast underground burial area, at first in pagan then in Christian use, housing various tombs of Christian martyrs. In the oldest parts of the complex may be found the "cubiculum of the coronation", with a rare depiction for that period of Christ being crowned with thorns, and a 4th-century painting of Susanna and the old men in the allegorical guise of a lamb and wolves.

Catacombs of Priscilla.

The Catacomb of Priscilla, situated at the Via Salaria across from the Villa Ada, probably derives its name from the name of the landowner on whose land they were built. They are looked after by the Benedictine nuns of Priscilla.

Catacombs of San Callisto.

Sited along the Appian way, these catacombs were built after AD 150, with some private Christian hypogea and a funeral area directly dependent on the Catholic Church. It takes its name from the deacon Saint Callixtus, proposed by Pope Zephyrinus in the administration of the same cemetery - on his accession as pope, he enlarged the complex, that quite soon became the official one for the Roman Church. The arcades, where more than fifty martyrs and sixteen pontiffs were buried, form part of a complex graveyard that occupies fifteen hectares and is almost 20 km (12 mi) long.

Catacombs of San Lorenzo.

Built into the hill beside San Lorenzo fuori le Mura, these catacombs are said to have been the final resting place of St. Lawrence. The church was built by Pope Sixtus III and later remodeled into the present nave. Sixtus also redecorated the shrine in the catacomb and was buried there.

Catacombs of San Pancrazio.

Established underneath the San Pacrazio basilica which was built by Pope Symmachus on the place where the body of the young martyr Saint Pancras, or Pancratius, had been buried. In the 17th century, it was given to the Discalced Carmelites, who completely remodeled it. The catacombs house fragments of sculpture and pagan and early Christian inscriptions.

Catacombs of San Sebastiano.

One of the smallest Christian cemeteries, this has always been one of the most accessible catacombs and is thus one of the least preserved (of the four original floors, the first is almost completely gone). On the left hand end of the right hand wall of the nave of the primitive basilica, rebuilt in 1933 on ancient remains, arches to end the middle of the nave of the actual church, built in the 13th century, are visible, along with the outside of the apse of the Chapel of the Relics; whole and fragmentary collected sarcophagi (mostly of 4th century date) were found in excavations.

Via a staircase down, one finds the arcades where varied cubicula (including the cubiculum of Giona's fine four stage cycle of paintings, dating to the end of the 4th century). One then arrives at the restored crypt of S. Sebastiano, with a table altar on the site of the ancient one (some remains of the original's base still survive) and a bust of Saint Sebastian attributed to Bernini. From here one reaches a platform, under which is a sandstone cavity ad catacumbas which once may have been named "ad catacumbas", thus giving this and all other tombs of this type their name. 3 mausolea of the second half of the 2nd century (but also in later use) open off the platform. The first one on the right, decorated on the outside with paintings of funereal banquets and the miracle of the calling out of Cerasa's demons, on the inside contains paintings (including a ceiling painting of a Gorgon's head) and inhumation burials and has a surviving inscription reading "Marcus Clodius Hermes", the name of its owner. The second, called by some "tomb of the Innocentiores" (a burial club which owned it), has a refined stucco ceiling, Latin inscriptions in Greek characters, and a graffito with the initials of the Greek words for "Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour". On the left is the mausoleum of Ascia, with an exterior wall painting of vine shoots rising from kantharoi up trompe-l'œil pillars.

A room called the "Triglia" rises from the platform, roughly in the middle of the basilica and cut into from above by the present basilica. This covered room was used for funereal banquets; the plastered walls have hundreds of graffiti by the devotees at these banquets, carved in the second half of the 3rd to the beginnings of the 4th century, with appeals to the apostles Peter and Paul. From the "Trigilia" one passed into an ancient ambulatory, which turns around into an apse: here is a collection of epitaphs and a model of all the mausolei, of the "Triglia" and of the Constantinian basilica. From here one descends into the "Platonica", a construction at the rear of the basilica that was long believed to have been the temporary resting place for Peter and Paul, but was in fact (as proved by excavation) a tomb for the martyr Quirinus, bishop of Sescia in Pannonia, whose remains were brought here in the 5th century. To the right of the "Platonica" is the chapel of Honorius III, adapted as the vestibule of the mausoleum, with interesting 13th-century paintings of Peter and Paul, the Crucifixion, saints, the Massacre of the Innocents, Madonna and Child, and other subjects. On the left is an apsidal mausoleum with an altar built against the apse: on the left wall a surviving graffito reading "domus Petri" either hints at Peter having been buried here or testifies to the belief at the time the graffito was written that Peter was buried here.

Catacombs of San Valentino.

These catacombs were dedicated to Saint Valentine. In the 13th century, the martyr's relics were transferred to Basilica of Saint Praxedes.

Catacombs of Sant'Agnese.

Built for the conservation and veneration of the remains of Saint Agnes of Rome. Agnes' bones are now conserved in the church of Sant'Agnese fuori le mura in Rome, built over the catacomb. Her skull is preserved in a side chapel in the church of Sant'Agnese in Agone in Rome's Piazza Navona.

Catacombs of via Anapo.

On the via Salaria, the Catacombs of via Anapo are datable to the end of the 3rd or the beginning of the 4th century, and contain diverse frescoes of biblical subjects.

Jewish catacombs.

There are six known Jewish catacombs in Rome, two of which are open to the public: Vigna Randanini and Villa Torlonia.

The Jewish catacombs were discovered in 1918, and archaeological excavations continued for twelve years. The structure has two entrances, one on via Syracuse and the other inside Villa Torlonia. The catacombs extend for more than 13,000 square metres (140,000 sq ft), and date back to the period between the 2nd and 3rd centuries, and possibly remained in use until the 5th century. There are almost a century of epitaphs, but these do not show any examples of a particular relief, beyond some rare frescoes showing the classic Jewish religious symbols.

The other catacombs are not open to the public because of the instability of their structure and the presence of radon.
 
4 - 18
 
 
4 - 19
 
 
4 - 20
 
 
4 - 21 DIANA
a shrine in the vicus Patricius, the only one of the many temples of Diana into which men were not allowed to enter
 
4 - 22 DIANA, AEDES
the temple of Diana on the Aventine ascribed by tradition to Servius Tullius, who assembled here the representatives of the surrounding Latin towns and persuaded them to build this temple as the common sanctuary of the league, in imitation of the temple of Diana at Ephesus and its relation to the Ionian cities. It was the oldest and most important temple on the Aventine, ordinarily known as Diana Aventina, or Aventinensis, and the Aventine itself was called collis Dianae. It was near the thermae Suranae and therefore probably just west of the church of S. Prisca on the clivus Publicius. Besides aedes, it is referred to as templum, fanum,  Dianium. The day of its dedication was 13th August, celebrated throughout Italy, especially by slaves.

This temple was rebuilt by L. Cornificius during the reign of Augustus (Suct. Aug. 29). In this form it may be shown on coins; and it is probably represented under the name aedes Dianae Cornificianae on a fragment ( of the Marble Plan, where it is drawn as octostyle and dipteral, surrounded by a double colonnade. It was standing in the fourth century, but no trace of it has been found. According to Censorinus one of the oldest sun-dials in Rome was on this temple, and it contained a wooden statue resembling that of Diana at Ephesus brought to Rome from Marseilles, and another of marble.

In the Augustan period it contained a bronze stele on which was engraved the compact between Rome and the Latin cities, probably a copy of the original, and another with the lex Icilia de Aventino publicando of 456 B.C.. It must also have contained a lex arae Dianae, which served as a model for other communities, and probably other ancient documents. The date of the founding of this temple, and its real significance, have been the subject of much discussion
 
4 - 23 DIANA, AEDES
A temple vowed by M. Aemilius Lepidus in 187 B.C. and dedicated by him in 179 in circo Flaminio on 23rd December. It probably stood just west of the circus for an identification with one of the two temples of S. Nicola a' Cesarini.
 
4 - 24 DIANA, SACELLUM
A shrine of Diana on the Caeliolus, called by Cicero  maximum etsanctissimum. It was destroyed by L. Calpurnius Piso when consul in 58 B.C. It was probably dedicated originally by some private person or family. Its exact site is not known
 
4 - 25 DIANIUM
A shrine of Diana on the Esquiline at the crossing of the clivus Orbius and clivus Cuprius. It is mentioned only once, but had then already disappeared. The funeral inscription of a vestiarius de Diano, which cannot refer to the same building, as it belongs to the imperial period.
 
4 - 26 DIANA
Shrine of (supposed), on Palatine.
 
4 - 27 DIRIBITORIUM
A building in the campus Martius in which the votes cast by the people, presumably in the Saepta, were counted by the diribitores, or election officials. It was begun by Agrippa, but opened and finished by Augustus in 7 B.C.. Its roof had the widest span of any building erected in Rome before 230 A.D., and was supported by beams of larch one hundred feet long and one and a half feet thick, of which one that had not been needed was kept in the Saepta as a curiosity. Caligula placed benches in the Diribitorium and used it instead of the theatre when the sun was particularly hot, and from its roof Claudius watched a great fire in the Aemiliana.

Cassius Dio states that this building was burned in the great fire of 80 A.D., but also that in his day (early third century) it was standing unroofed, because, after its wonderful roof of great beams had been destroyed, it could not be rebuilt. As it is impossible that such a building in this locality should not have been repaired after the fire of 80, we must suppose that it was a hall without a roof for one hundred and fifty years. We must also suppose that it was very near the Saepta to facilitate the counting of votes, but it is very difficult to find a location large enough for such a structure near the Saepta except on the south-west, under the church of the Gesu, where, however, no traces whatever of any ancient building have been found. For this reason, in spite of the fact that Saepta and Diribitorium are mentioned together as if they were separate buildings, Hulsen has developed the theory that it was really the upper story of the Saepta. The masonry of the latter seems to be too massive for a one-storied structure, and the enormous beams would be admirably adapted for a hall like that which the Diribitorium is represented as being. The mediaeval name Diburo belongs, however, to the DIVORUM TEMPLUM. See also SAEPTA IULIA.
 
4 - 28 DIS PATER, AEDES
A temple in Region XI which is mentioned only in Not. (not in Cur.). It is probably the AEDES SUMMANI (q.v.), as Summanus was explained in the third and fourth century as Summus Manium, and so identified with Dis Pater. Cf. also ELAGABALUS, TEMPLUM.
 
4 - 29 DIS PATER ET PROSERPINA, ARA
An altar in the extreme north-western part of the campus Martius, the TARENTUM (q.v.), said to have been found by a Sabine from Eretum, Valesius, who, at the command of an oracle, was seeking water to heal his children of a plague. It was also said to be twenty feet below the surface of the ground. On this altar were offered the sacrifices at the ludi Tarentini, which were afterwards merged with the ludi saeculares. The altar of the time of the empire was discovered in 1886-1887, behind the Palazzo Cesarini, 5 metres below the level of the Corso Vittorio Emanuele. Two blocks of the altar itself, which was 3.40 metres square, were found resting upon a pedestal which was approached by three steps, and a large pulvinus belonging to it was also found. Behind it was a massive wall of tufa and round it a triple wall of peperino. Not far away, in a mediaeval wall, were found large portions of the marble slabs containing the inscriptions that record the celebration of the ludi saeculares by Augustus in B.C., and by Severus in 204 A.D. The altar itself is no longer visible.
 
4 - 30 DIUS FIDIUS.
see SEMO SANCUS.
 
4 - 31 DIVORUM TEMPLUM
The name of a notable structure in the campus Martius erected by Domitian, consisting of an enclosing porticus, the porticus Divorum, and two aedes, the aedes divi Titi and, presumably, an aedes divi Vespasiani. Eleven fragments of the Marble Plan represent the porticus (q.v.) between the Saepta and the baths of Agrippa, and within its entrance, formed by a triple arch on the north side, two small tetrastyle temples. These were probably the two aedes of Titus and Vespasian, and the whole complex was the templum Divorum, which seems ordinarily to have been known as Divorum. The porticus was rectangular, about 200 metres long and 55 wide, with something over thirty columns on the long sides and sixteen on one short side. It extended from the present Piazza Grazioli nearly to the Via di San Marco, and contained a grove and altar besides the temples. Stuart Jones believes that the relief of the Suovetaurilia in the Louvre belongs to the 'high altar' of this temple. After the fourth century there is no mention of the structure, but its name is preserved in the Diburi or Diburo of several mediaeval documents in connection with the monastery of S. Ciriaco in Camiliano. Many architectural remains have been found on the site of the building, but not such as to permit of a reconstruction.
 
4 - 32 DIVORUM, AEDES
A temple of the Divi, that is, the deified emperors, on the Palatine, mentioned three times in inscriptions of the Arvales as a place of assembling, and probably referred to by Cassius Dio. This seems to have been a new temple, which served for the collective worship of the divi Augusti, after the observance of their separate cults began to fall into disuse.
 
4 - 33 DOLIOLA
A place, probably within the limits of the forum Boarium, ad cloacam maximam, where earthen pots, doliola, were buried. It was unlawful to pollute this spot, and the jars were said to contain either the bones of corpses orquaedam religiosa of Numa (Varro, l.c.), or the sacred utensils of the Vestals or other priests, which they buried when the Gauls sacked the city. In 1901 there were found, at the south-west corner of the arch of Ianus Quadrifrons and also at a distance of 22 metres from it, remains of small chambers arranged on both sides of narrow corridors, which formed subterranean galleries with vaulted roofs. These chambers were of small size, 1.95 by 1.80 metres in width and depth, with doors 1.80 high. Each chamber contained a seat across one side. The floor of the chambers farthest from the arch is 3.25 metres below the ancient pavement of the forum Boarium, and 4.50 metres below the present level of the Via del Velabro. The construction of the galleries is that of the last century of the republic, and they seem to be adapted for an underground prison suggesting the locus saxo consaeptus, in which two Gauls and two Greeks were buried alive in 2B.C. We have several other records of similar human sacrifices in foro Boario, though Gatti, in spite of Pliny's etiam nostra aetas vidit, doubts if they actually occurred except in effigy. This may also have been the Doliola itself, for the ossa cadaverum said to be preserved here suggest human sacrifices.

Von Duhn considers that the probabilities are in favour of a site nearer the temple of Vesta, and that the discoveries of 1901 are of too late a period to have anything to do with the matter. There is little doubt that the whole legend arose from actual discoveries of prehistoric tombs along the line of the cloaca Maxima.
 
4 - 34 DOLOCENUM.
see IUPPITER DOLICHENUS.
 
4 - 35 AEBUTII, DOMUS.
on the Aventine, mentioned in connection with the Bacchanalian prosecutions 
 
4 - 36 AELIA ATHENAIS, DOMUS.
on the Esquiline, just south of and within the porta Esquilina (?); only known from a lead pipe of the middle of the third century A.D. found in the Via dello Statuto (LF 2, on which she is called h(onesta) f(emina)
 
4 - 37 AELII, DOMUS.
a small house, perhaps on the Esquiline, near the MARIANA MONUMENTA (q.v.), which was occupied by sixteen Aelii at once about the middle of the second century B.C.
 
4 - 38 AELIUS MAXIMUS AUGUSTORUM LIBERTUS, DOMUS.
near the thermae of Caracalla (?)
 
4 - 39 T. AELIUS NAEVIUS ANTONIUS SEVERUS, DOMUS
on the Quirinal, where its foundations were discovered at the corner of the Via Milano and the Via Nazionale. The owner was a man of consular rank of the time of Decius (?) 
 
4 - 40 P. AELIUS ROMULUS AUGG. LIB., DOMUS
see Q. BLAESIUS IUSTUS.
 
4 - 41 AEMILIA PAULINA ASIATICA, DOMUS
on the Quirinal. Its foundations were discovered in 1887 in the Via Genova under the Palazzo dell' Esposizione, oriented according to the vicus Longus 
 
4 - 42 M. AEMILIUS AEMILIANUS, DOMUS
situated on ground later occupied by the thermae of Diocletian on the site of the Ministero delle Finanze (?). One piece of lead water-pipe, with his name and that of Marcia Caenis, the maker, was found in the Campo Verano, the modern cemetery on the via Tiburtina; another, with that of Marcia Caenis only, on the site named above. The inscription is of too early a date to allow us to accept Lanciani's identification with the Aemilianus who subsequently became emperor.
 
4 - 43 L. AEMILIUS IUNCUS, DOMUS
on the Esquiline (?), only known from a lead pipe. He is perhaps the consul suffectus of 127 A.D., to whom the Figlinae Iuncianae are thought to have belonged,
 
4 - 44 M. AGRIPPA, DOMUS
see M. ANTONIUS (IN PALATIO).
 
4 - 45 ALBINOVANUS PEDO, DOMUS
see C. PLINIUS SECUNDUS.
 
4 - 46 ALFENIUS CEIONIUS IULIANUS KAMENIUS, DOMUS:
On the Quirinal, south-east of the Palazzo Barberini, where its ruins were found. Alfenius was a prominent member of the anti-Christian party in the fourth century, and was accused of practising magic in 368. It must have been his grandfather who was praefectus urbi in 333 A.D., ten years before his birth. He died in 385, and was buried near Fogliano, on the coast between Astura and Monte Circeo.
 
4 - 47 AMETHYSTI DRUSI CAESAR(IS), DOMUS.
Below the Pincian Hill, on the north- east of the Via del Babuino (?); only known from a lead pipe.
 
4 - 48 AMPELIUS, DOMUS.
The house on the Quirinal, belonging to P. Ampelius of Antioch, praefectus urbi in 370 A.D., which was described as parvae aedes sub clivo Salutis
 
4 - 49 ANCUS MARTIUS, DOMUS.
on the summa Sacra via, near the temple of the Lares (Solin. i. 23), or, according to Varro (ap. Non. 531 M), in Palatio ad portam Mugionis secundum viam sub sinistra.
 
4 - 50 ANICII DOMUS (I)
see GREGORIUS MAGNUS.
 
4 - 51 ANICII, DOMUS (
supposed to have stood near the circus Flaminius, from an inscription that records the restoration of some structure by Anicius Acilius Glabrio Faustus in 408-423 A.D. See also XENODOCHIUM ANICIORUM
 
4 - 52 L. ANNAEUS SENECA, DOMUS
A house occupied by Seneca, only mentioned in one passage, which only shows that it was in a sunny situation.
 
4 - 53 ANNIANA, DOMUS
see MILO-DOMUS.
 
4 - 54 A. ANNIUS PLOCAMUS, DOMUS 
On the Esquiline, to the north-east of the thermae of Diocletian (?); only known from a lead pipe. The pipe is said to have been found at the angle of the Via Volturno and the Via Goito ; but as they are parallel, Via Gaeta is a probable conjecture. He may be the freedman who under Claudius took over the Red Sea dues from the treasury
 
4 - 55 ANNIUS VERUS, DOMUS
On the Caelian, near the Lateran, in which Marcus Aurelius was brought up (Hist. Aug. M. Ant. . Annius Verus was consul for the second time in 121 and for the third in 126 A.D.
 
4 - 56 M. ANTONIUS, DOMUS
see POMPEIUS (in Carinis).
 
4 - 57 ANTONIUS GNIPHO-DOMUS: 
mentioned only once (Suet. Gramm. 7), and of unknown location. See DOMUS CAESARIS.
 
4 - 58 Casal Rotondo.  

From Wikipedia.

Casal Rotondo is the largest tomb on the Appian Way, to the southeast of Rome, Italy. A small farmhouse has been constructed on the top.

The structure is found at approximately the VIth mile of the ancient Appian Way. The name comes from the fact that the tomb is round and because a farmhouse (casale) was built on the top in the Middle Ages, when it belonged to the Savelli family and was one of a system of watchtowers along the Appian Way. The mausoleum dates from around 30 B.C. It is a large circular building with a diameter of 35 m, decorated with a frieze and, originally, had a cone-shaped roof. The base offered seats where travellers could rest out of the sun. Near the mausoleum, the archaeologist Luigi Canina (1795-1856) built a brick wall containing architectural fragments. These were originally thought to have been from the Casal Rotondo but this is now disputed. Canina deduced from a small piece of inscription with the name "Cotta" that the monument had been built by M. Aurelius Cotta Messallinus for his father, Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus, but this inscription and other architectural fragments are now assumed to have come from a smaller monument at the site, and they may have nothing to do with Messalla Corvinus.
 
4 - 59 L. APPULEIUS SATURNINUS, DOMUS
destroyed, like that of M. Fulvius Flaccus, after the murder of its owner, who was tribune in 103 and 100 B.C.. Its site is unknown.
 
4 - 60 C. AQUILIUS GALLUS, DOMUS
on the Viminal, and said to have been the most beautiful house in Rome in the middle of the first century B.C. 
 
4 - 61 ARRUNTIUS STELLA, DOMUS
the house of the consul of 101 A.D., the friend of Statius and Martial, at the beginning of the Subura.
 
4 - 62 L. ASINIUS RUFUS, DOMUS
on the Aventine (?), known only from a lead pipe. He may be identical with the friend of Pliny and Tacitus.
 
4 - 63 ATTICUS, DOMUS
see DOMUS POMPONIORUM.
 
4 - 64 AUFIDIA CORNELIA VALENTILLA, DOMUS
who had a house or gardens south of the Porta Maggiore (?), where the remains of a building of the latter half of the second century A.D. were found.
 
4 - 65 AUGUSTUS, DOMUS (
The house on the Palatine, ad capita bubula (Suet. Aug. 5), in which Augustus was born and where he lived for some time.
 
4 - 66 AUGUSTUS, DOMUS (
The house of Augustus on the Palatine, which served as his residence subsequently. The house was thus originally that of Hortensius, and close to the temple of APOLLO (q.v.); and if we identify the latter with the podium on the south-west side of the hill, the house of Hortensius will be that which is generally known as the house of Livia. Augustus also acquired the house of Q. LUTATIUS CATULUS (q.v.), the site of which is not exactly known.

We thus learn from Suet. that a part of the house of Augustus was struck by lightning and the temple of Apollo was erected on its site- in compensation for which the senate decreed that a house should be given to him out of the public funds. The enlarged house must have been ready at more or less the same time as the temple of Apollo; for on 13th January, 27 B.C., the senate decreed that an oak crown should be placed over the door; for a representation cf. the Sorrento base.

The authors speak of its great simplicity, and of a lofty tower chamber, into which the emperor was glad to retire and of an AEDICULA ET ARA VESTAE (q.v.). The house was destroyed by fire in 3 A.D., and Augustus only accepted pro forma the contributions made for its repair.

Hulsen suggests that the older remains under the basilica, peristyle and triclinium of the DOMUS AUGUSTIANA (v. p. may belong to the palace of Augustus (HJ go). But even if we accept his theory as to the temple of Apollo, on which this depends, this is only possible for the former group, to which, however, the rooms under the large hall to the S.E. and the so-called lararium must be added-if they do not belong to an independent house. And, as the temple was founded in a part of the original house (see above), this would make it far too large. On the other hand, if we identify the podium on the S.W. with the temple of Apollo, the house of Hortensius purchased by Augustus may well be identified with what is generally known as the house of Livia. That it actually passed into her possession is very probable, from the discovery of lead water-pipes with the name Iuliae Aug(ustae), which most authorities refer to her. It has also been identified with the house of Germanicus, the father of Caligula, where the murderers of the latter hid themselves. But only the identification with the house of Augustus suffices to explain the fact that it was preserved unaltered down to the end of the classical period, as though it had been an object of veneration (see DOMUS TIBERIANA). Water-pipes show that it remained imperial property at least until the time of Domitian.

The house is approached by a small passage, accessible from the cryptoporticus of the domus Tiberiana, which leads into a court, most of which is paved with mosaic. On the right is a small triclinium, and next to it a wine cellar; and opposite the entrance are three vaulted rooms, facing N.W. and originally lighted by large lunette windows over the roof of the court. The paintings are similar to those which in Pompeii are assigned to the second style, and their perspective owes much to scene painting.

The other section of the house (perhaps the front) was only reached from the portion described by a narrow wooden staircase. At first it consisted of a courtyard surrounded by a portico with rectangular pillars, and rooms on two sides of it (N.W. and S.W.); the centre of it was then filled up by a large room; then the portico was split up into small rooms; and finally the cast angle was cut by a narrow cryptoporticus, which has destroyed this front of the house- if there was one. There is a lower story, as to which no information is available at present.

On the S.W. are the scanty remains of a peristyle, at present cut off from the rest of the house by a road which is not ancient, but the result of restoration by Rosa (who excavated the house in 1869), which is identified as the atrium in which the senate met. Its area is at least 14.20 by metres, or even 22.70 by 20, certainly not as little as 6 by 15. It was built on the remains of an earlier house, a white mosaic pavement of which still remains under the vault of the cryptoporticus. This vault must have been set on the remains of the pre-existing building, and, though provided with windows, was never cleared out so as to be accessible. Further remains of both periods have also been found to the N.W. and S.W., but no description is available.
 
4 - 67 AUGUSTIANA, DOMUS
Denoted the whole imperial residence (except DOMUS TIBERIANA, q.v.) at any given period. Domus Flavia (not DOMUS COMMODIANA, q.v.), domus Severiana are modern terms for the parts erected by these several Emperors' (Pl. 14. This seems to state the case as clearly as possible. DOMUS PALATINA (q.v.) is also used for the whole group.

For the original house of Augustus, see DOMUS AUGUSTI, and for the remains of the DOMUS TRANSITORIA and DOMUS AUREA, see those articles.

It is clear, from examination of the construction, that what is now existing above ground is due in main to a great restoration by Domitian's architect Rabirius, which was only completed in 92 A.D.. The cornices have two rings between the dentils, a characteristic of Domitian's work.

Two fragments of a marble epistyle, bearing an inscription in letters once filled with bronze, which now lie at the main entrance of the palace and were doubtless found there, are attributed to the reign of Vespasian but might betterbe assigned to the beginning of that of Domitian (81-83 A.D.). The inscription may have related to the construction of a porticus. The building is described by Martial, writing in 93 A.D., as a lofty pile; in ib. 39 he alludes to the completion of the triclinium, of which Statius also speaks, in a poem of extravagant praise.

Suetonius (Dom. 1 tells us that Domitian had the walls of the porticoes in which he usually walked lined with selenite (phengites lapis), so that he would see what was going on behind him; but otherwise we have little definite information, and practically nothing about the fate of the building after his time.

All the accounts we have are too vague to be referred to this particular palace (see PALATINUS MONS), and many of them (in Hist. Aug.) have been doubted by v. Domaszewski; see LAVACRUM PLAUTIANI, TEMPLUM ELAGABALI, DIAETAE MAMMAEAE, SICILIA, STABULUM, etc.

In Christian times the edges of the hill were occupied by churches, but the central portion (perhaps owing to the destruction caused by the earthquake of Leo IV) seems to have been almost entirely left alone. Both the Anonymus Einsiedlensis and the writers of the Mirabilia barely mention it, and we know very little about its mediaeval history, though the pallacium divi Augusti described by Magister Gregorius in the twelfth century is probably this palace  (it is to be noted that he connects the aqueduct with it) and that the main aqueduct is spoken of as still running, though the distributing pipes are not.; and the inscription that he says he saw among the ruins,domus divi Augusti clementissimi, may belong either to Domitian's restoration or to a later one.

The palace of Domitian may be said to occupy the whole of the south-eastern half of the hill-the Palatium. It falls into several sections:

(a) The first consists of a group of state apartments entered from the north-west.

The lofty facade was originally decorated with a colonnade in front; but Rabirius's neglect to fill up properly the earlier buildings below made it necessary for Hadrian to support it with walls projecting at right angles, in which many of the columns were enclosed (the same procedure was necessary in the case of the so-called templum Divi Augusti). Underground chambers were also constructed against the facade wall.

The state apartments are arranged round a huge peristyle with columns of Numidian marble and an elaborate entablature; in the centre was a large shallow open water basin. The north-east part of this court occupied the summit of the hill, as is shown by the fact that the MUNDUS (if such it be) is excavated in the natural rock; while the ground sloped away towards the forum and the circus Maximus, which accounts for the presence of earlier buildings (see above) under the halls to the north-east and south-west of the peristyle. Domitian abandoned the use of this lower level, and all the state apartments are on the level of the peristyle, which was entered between lobbies (a latrine is distinguishable) from the north-west, where the main door of the palace was.

Of these halls, that at the north angle has the form of a basilica, though there was certainly no clerestory. It was too lofty to sustain the weight of its roof, and the apse has been thickened and piers inserted in the two angles at the other end. Outside the basilica the branch from the cryptoporticus of the DOMUS TIBERIANA (q.v.) reaches the peristyle.

The next hall, almost square in plan, had a span of about 100 feet, and niches for statues in the walls. The third hall, the so-called lararium, is a good deal smaller. Adjacent to it is the only staircase ascending to the upper floor of which we have any trace. On the south of the peristyle is the triclinium, which, as Statius tells us, was a room of great size, decorated with a variety of coloured marbles. It is not certain whether it was vaulted or roofed with a flat roof. Fragments of the huge columns of grey granite which stood in the opening towards the peristyle (as well as round the interior) and of the entablature which rested on them may still be seen, as also portions of its marble pavement. It was flanked by a nymphaeum on each side, which originally opened on to it by means of large windows; but these were filled up before the interior of the triclinium was faced with marble for the last time, as it has come down to us.

Under the basilica are remains of a house of the very early empire, which cuts through still earlier buildings. It was first excavated in 1724, and drawings of the paintings on its walls were made. It was in turn destroyed by the construction of a water-cistern with five chambers, to which Boni wrongly referred the statement of Suetonius, Nero 3'we are told by Suetonius that Nero caused sea-water to be brought from the sea to the Palatine,' which really concerns the domus Aurea. Finally Domitian sunk his foundations through the whole group of buildings when he raised the general level of this part of the imperial palace.

Under the 'lararium ' Boni discovered the remains of a house of the first century B.C., which he wrongly attributed to Catiline, below which were terra-cottas of two still earlier houses (third and fifth century B.C.). The lower floor, accessible by a staircase, and originally lighted mainly from the north-east (where, under the foundations of the platform of the palace, other remains may still be seen), consists of a number of small rooms, with paintings of a transitional period between the first and second Pompeian styles, in which columns have begun to make their appearance, and there is an attempt at perspective. The pavements are of simple mosaic. One room also has a fine lunette with two griffins in high stucco relief. Scanty remains of the pavements of the upper story may be seen some 6 feet below the level of the floor of the 'lararium '; in some cases marble pavements have been laid over them.

The portion of the site to the south-west of the triclinium lies outside the main group. On the upper level are two apsidal halls lying side by side, also belonging to the time of Domitian, and by some supposed to be restorations of his day of the Greek and Latin libraries of the temple of Apollo, the orientation of which they follow.

Halfway down the hill, and built against it, is a group of chambers of the same period with a semicircular exedra in the centre, in front of which is a row of columns. Below the line of columns the excavations have not been completed, and the plan is therefore uncertain- for a room belonging to the lower floor, see PBS viii. 91-103. The only information we have is from the numerous inscriptions scratched on the walls. The fact that in one of the larger rooms a list of valuable garments occurs, makes it likely that the building served for the keepers of the imperial robes. In two of the smaller and darker rooms, however, the phrase exit de paedagogio occurs several times. Paedagogium might well be interpreted as a euphemism for prison; and for the famous graffito of the Crucifixion. Still lower down the hill is a private house at a different orientation, belonging to the Severan period or a little later, containing some interesting paintings. It cannot be identified with the DOMUS GELOTIANA (q.v.).

(b) The second section of the palace lies to the south-east of the first, and appears to have contained the residential apartments. From a curved terrace on the south-west a large arched opening led into a courtyard, surrounded by a colonnade, behind which were rooms of elaborate plan.

They were excavated and plundered at the end of the eighteenth century, and were then filled up again. Three rooms on the north-east side of the peristyle are accessible: the central one has an interesting barrel vault, while those on each side are octagonal and domed. The construction, again, belongs to the period of Domitian, though the brick-stamps betoken later restoration. From the north-western side of the peristyle passages lead through a great staircase with a large light well in the centre (from which light was transmitted to the surrounding rooms by means of arched openings), indicated in Guattani's plan, which leads on to the level of the triclinium. There is no trace of the corresponding staircase on the south-east; and his plan is apparently incorrect on this side, at any rate on the lower level. For from it a staircase of quite a different form led up to the second order of the ' Hippodromus ' or ' Stadium,' which blocked completely the passage which the modern visitor uses, but which did not exist in ancient times. The Villa Mills, once more, lies on a mass of solid rock, and there is no lower floor under it. It is built into the walls of this section of the palace, the plan of which is somewhat difficult to determine. The excavations made in the garden, both in 1869 and recently, and the evidence of the Marble Plan are sufficient to prove that it extended over the whole garden, and that the temple of Apollo cannot have stood there.

(c) The third section of the palace is the hippodromus Palatii, as it is called in Acta S. Sebastiani. The name hippodromus was already in vogue in the time of Pliny the younger for a garden in the shape of a (circus or) stadium, as this building is generally called, and traces of the edgings of the paths, in white marble, are to be seen, and of a gutter in the same material outside the arcades.

It is a long, narrow area, 160 metres long and 50 wide, the north-east end of which is straight and the south-west curved. The rooms at the former end supported a balcony. They have coffered ceilings, but were almost entirely closed at a later date. The rooms outside the latter end may be connected with the imperial tribune for viewing the performances in the circus Maximus.

The open space in the centre had a semicircular fountain at each end. It was enclosed by arcades with projecting half columns of brick, faced with porta santa marble, (the bases and capitals being as usual of white marble), which date from the original construction of Domitian. Above the arcades was perhaps a colonnade. Some others, e.g. Pascal, also omit the colonnade; and it may be that the granite columns which are still to be seen lying in the Stadium belong to the church mentioned. The arcades collapsed, and were restored by Septimius Severus, who built counterpilasters all along the outer wall to strengthen the vaults. After his restoration at any rate there was no approach to the garden from the north-west, but only to the top of the arcades.

On the south-east side is a huge semicircular exedra with a semi- dome; this is generally attributed to Hadrian, on the evidence of brick-stamps; but while the distinction between the work of Domitian and that of Septimius Severus can easily be discerned, there seems to be no trace of an intermediate period. The lower part of the exedra was a good deal altered by Severus, but it was not, as awhole, his work.

An elegant round frieze found in the stadium, with olive branches between lyres and masks, belongs to some small circular building not certainly identified. Two statues of nymphs or muses were found here ; one is still on the spot; for the other, cf. PT III. Repairs by Theodoric and Athalaric are vouched for by brick-stamps, and, perhaps in this period, considerable changes were made. Another porticus was built across the hippodromus from the north end of the exedra, and a wall parallel to this porticus, from the south end of the exedra, thus dividing the whole area into three parts. Within the southern division an elliptical enclosure was erected, the walls of which were tangent to the cross-wall and the colonnade. The masonry of this enclosure is of the latest period, and the walls, although the remains are a metre high, have no solid foundations, but rest on the debris of the area. This elliptical wall was strengthened at certain points by spur walls extending to the colonnade. The only entrance to the enclosure was at the south end, where two pedestals from the house of the Vestals were built into the doorway. Openings, somewhat over a metre in width, were made in the wall itself at regular intervals, and within one of these openings is a basin or trough with two compartments. It is probable that this enclosure was a vivarium, built to contain wild animals, a sort of private menagerie of the emperors.

The site of the church of S. Cesario in Palatio, between the middle of the twelfth and the beginning of the fifteenth century, has recently been fixed by Hulsen about the middle of the 'stadium,' while from the seventh to the middle of the ninth century the name belonged to an oratory in the Lateran palace. This does not mean that the church on the Palatine was not of older origin ; but the frescoes of the Byzantine period in one of the chambers under the Villa Mills described by Bartoli must then be attributed to the monastery connected with the church.

Excavations have been made and recorded at various times since 1552, and permit a fairly accurate description of the building to be given.

(d) To the south-east of the stadium is a fourth division of the palace; the substructions, for a certain distance, belong to the period of Domitian, while the superstructure (thermae) was in the main the work of Septimius Severus, who also erected at a slightly later period the huge arched substructions which still tower over the valley of the circus Maximus, and which must have once extended a considerable distance further, right to the edge of the circus itself. Their constructive peculiarities are worth noting. The SEPTIZONIUM (q.v.) was built to screen them.

Of the superstructure, which must have had a somewhat fantastic plan, with rooms of irregular shape and form, but little is left. The so-called tower of Theodoric is a circular latrine. Where the imperial tribune for watching the races in the circus Maximus (supposing always that Severus erected a new one), is to be sought, is quite uncertain; while the story that Severus wished to make the entrance to the Palatine from the via Appia, and that Alexander Severus had the same intention but was hindered by ritual reasons (Hist. Aug. Sev. 24. , is doubtful.

(e) The fifth section of the imperial palace is the huge rectangular platform supported by terrace walls, which occupies the east angle of the Palatine. The identification with the ADONAEA (q.v.) is doubtful, but the shape of the whole area (the Vigna Barberini, in the centre of which rises the church of S. Sebastiano in Pallara) seems to be that of a garden ; and its construction is probably due to Domitian, though brick-stamps of Hadrian have been found. Others place here the temple of JUPITER ULTOR (q.v.) or the temple of APOLLO (q.v.). For mediaeval fortifications here, cf. RL cit.

That the Palladium was still preserved on the Palatine in the middle of the fourth century A.D. is clear from the inscription of a Consularis Campaniae of that period, found at Privernum (Piperno), in which he is spoken of Praepositus Palladii Palatini. The regio Palladii  or Pallaria is distinguished from the Palatium maius in the sources of the eleventh-thirteenth centuries; and the church of S. Maria, (or S. Sebastiano, as it is now called), de Palladio or in Pallaria, with paintings of 970, still exists in the middle of the Vigna Barberini, where Hulsen places the temple of Apollo, in which he thinks the Palladium was kept.

On the south-west of the Vigna Barberini lies the church of S. Bonaventura built over a large reservoir, which was supplied by a branch of the AQUA CLAUDIA (q.v.; see also ARCUS NERONIANI), and between it and the ' Stadium ' was a nymphaeum. Below the summit of the hill on the south-east slope are remains of private houses, attributable to the same general period.

Inscriptions of slaves and freedmen, including a priest of Mithras, connected with the domus Augustiana, from the second century onwards, are published in CIL.

For the representation of the domus Augustiana (Flavia) in the Marble Plan, see Hulsen in DAP. Which, if any, of the paintings drawn by Bartoli and others in the course of the Farnese excavations belong to the buildings of the period of Domitian is a difficult question, as no remains of paintings are now visible and the records of locality are entirely insufficient.

No official record of the recent excavations has as yet been published.

 
4 - 68 AVIANUS VINDICIANUS, DOMUS
On the Quirinal (?). He also had property, near the Tiber, to the south-west of the Mausoleum of Augustus (?), known only from several inscriptions on a large lead pipe found near the Ripetta. He was consularis Campaniae, and vicarius urbis Romae in 378 A.D.
 
4 - 69 T. AVIDIUS QUIETUS, DOMUS
(a) on the Esquiline, just outside the porta Esquilina, where some remains  were found in 1876. Avidius was governor of Thrace in 82 A.D.. (b) Probably of the same man, on the Quirinal, where a tastefully decorated nymphaeum was found. Two other pipes of unknown provenance (one perhaps from the Caffarella valley on the left of the via Appia) bearing the same inscription are recorded.
 
4 - 70 AUREA, DOMUS

A huge palace built by Nero after the fire of 64 A.D. It took the place of the DOMUS TRANSITORIA (q.v.), and its grounds extended from the Palatine to the Esquiline, the central point being an artificial lake (stagnum) in the valley later occupied by the Colosseum (Suet. Nero, 3whose description of it is worth quoting in full..

The area occupied is further defined by Martial, who is writing in praise of Vespasian.

Perhaps the scaffolding for the erection of the arch of Titus: 1 the usual explanation of the line-HJ 17-to mean that the machinery of the amphitheatre was stored in the ruins of the vestibule of the Golden House is unsatisfactory-why media via?

The domus Aurea extended no further over the Caelian than the site of the temple of CLAUDIUS (q.v.), which was begun by Agrippina, destroyed by Nero, and built anew by Vespasian. That it did not extend beyond the Subura on the north is clear from the fact that the temple of Tellus and the portico of Livia continued to exist; while on the east the horti Maecenatis, already the property of the imperial house, formed its natural boundary.

According to Hulsen's estimate the area thus included amounted to about 125 acres, while that of the Vatican, including the garden and S. Peter's with its piazza, is about 75 acres. Rivoira, however, puts the area at 370 acres, that of Hyde Park being 390. It would be still further increased if we add to it the area of the long lines of lofty arcades on either side of the Sacra via, which Nero transformed into a monumental avenue of approach to the vestibule of his -palace. See Van Deman, AJA, 1923, 383-424; Mem. Am. Acad. v. 115-126; the northern arcade began just east of the basilica Aemilia. It was interrupted by the road leading east of the temple of the Penates, which passed by an archway (the so-called arcus Latronis) under the north-west corner of the basilica of Constantine. The northern end of the portico behind it has been obliterated by the construction of the basilica. On the south the arcade began at the Regia, and ran eastward up to the beginning of the CLIVUS PALATINUS (q.v.), which thenceforward diverged from the Sacra via at right angles opposite the centre of the vestibule of the domus Aurea. It followed the clivus some way beyond the end of the Nova via, as far as the ARCUS DOMITIANI ( (q.v.). On the south the portico behind the arcade extended as far as the Nova via, on each side of which an arcade also ran. The remains of these very extensive arcades and porticoes are comparatively scanty, except for their massive foundation walls 2 (see PORTICUS MARGARITARIA). Most of the travertine blocks of the pillars have been pilfered by searchers for building material (especially in the time of Alexander VII, according to LR 2and very often nothing is left but their impressions in the concrete of the later brickfaced walls, which were built between them when the porticoes were used as horrea. The blocks hitherto attributed to the arch of the Fabii have turned out to belong to the arcades.

The entrance to the vestibule of the domus Aurea was, no doubt, opposite to the Sacra via-approximately in the position of the facade of the church of S. Francesca Romana. It must have had a great portico or peristyle (for it is also called atrium), in the centre of which stood the COLOSSUS (q.v.), a statue of Nero 120 feet high. It is unnecessary to suppose, however, as Weege does, that the PORTICUS TRIPLICES MILIARIAE (q.v.) are to be sought here. Porticoes, a walk several times along which (or we may even say, round the whole of which) provided a promenade of a measured mile, were in great vogue among the Romans, (see PORTICUS MILIARENSIS and PORTICUS TRIUMPIII).

The construction of the vestibule forced the SACRA VIA (q.v.) to cross the Velia somewhat further south than it had done hitherto (though the pavement of the Augustan Sacra via has been found under the steps of the temple of Venus and Rome, we have no knowledge of the buildings which occupied the site of the vestibule), and this road must have been closed for ordinary traffic after 64 A.D. We may notice that the route of Nero's triumph in 68 A.D. did not include it ; and the arch of Titus was erected at the only possible point on the Velia. That the vestibule lay in ruins until the construction of the temple of Venus and Rome by Hadrian seems unlikely, for we know that the Colossus stood in its original position until he moved it.

Beyond the vestibule a view opened out over the great park described above, and down on the lake, on the site of which the Colosseum was built, which formed the centre of the whole: and in the park around it, besides the main palace on the north-east, were various smaller detached buildings, as at Hadrian's Villa.

On the Velia itself, to the north of the temple of Venus and Rome and to the east of the basilica of Constantine, are remains of buildings now covered by a garden, in which architects of the sixteenth century saw two oblong courts surrounded by porticoes. To the east a small nymphaeum, adorned with niches for statues and decorated with sea-shells, was found in 1895, who says that it was in the same Vigna dei Nobili that the excavations of 1668 were made, in which an interesting painting, perhaps representing the harbour of Puteoli, was found. That this painting cannot be earlier than the middle of the second century A.D. is clear from the occurrence in it of the name Balineum Faustines). On the Palatine we must attribute to it the irregular curving concrete foundations which cut through the remains of the DOMUS TRANSITORIA (q.v.) under the triclinium of the Flavian palace. Remains of the buildings round the stagnum were found on the north of the Colosseum, and foundations of others were recognised in cutting the drain from S. Clemente to the Colosseum 3, (see CASTRA MISENATIUM).

But the main palace was situated further to the east, on the mons Oppius, above the via Labicana, to the south of the porticus Liviae. It faced almost due south, and occupied a rectangular area of about 400 by 200 yards. The plan is not one which is familiar in Rome. The central portion is built in the shape of a TT, the two sides being inclined to one another so as to enclose a trapezoidal court. The facades were decorated with colonnades; and in the centre a large rectangular room rose higher, special emphasis being laid upon it-as in some of the Roman villas represented in the landscapes painted in Pompeian houses. Villas with a similar plan have been found at Val Catena, on the island of Brioni, near Pola.

The wings are disproportionately large. Behind the facade of the west wing is a row of long and comparatively narrow rooms, each divided into two parts by niches, so as to serve as triclinia either in summer or in winter. At the back they opened on a garden with a fountain in the centre; and behind it again is a long, lofty cryptoporticus, at the beginning of which traces of mosaic pavements, belonging to earlier houses on the site, may be seen. The east wing is quite different in arrangement, and not all the rooms have yet been cleared. In one of them we see the earliest existing example of a groined cross vault; while another is interesting as being octagonal in plan, with a circular dome having an opening in the centre. This room appears never to have been completed.

The remains of this palace, which were damaged by fire in 104 A.D., were covered over and filled up by Trajan, who erected his huge thermae over them; and they have therefore come down to us in a very fair state of preservation, especially as regards the paintings, though those of the west wing, which has been more completely opened up, have perished since their discovery in 18; whereas those of the east wing, though known far earlier, have been far less exposed to the air. The ruins indeed have been known since the early Renaissance, and were visited by many of the artists of the time, and by their successors right onwards till the early nineteenth century. Many of their signatures are actually preserved, including that of Giovanni da Udine, the assistant of Raphael in the Loggia of the Vatican and elsewhere. The paintings are all of them on a small scale, with little figures painted or in stucco relief, often with stucco framing, and they must always have been difficult to see in the lofty rooms of the Golden House, to which, though well enough suited for ' columbaria,' this style of decoration seems to us singularly ill adapted; while the execution, except in a few rooms, is decidedly inferior to what we should expect from what Pliny tells us of the artist who was responsible for them, though no doubt, like Raphael, he had numerous assistants.

For reproductions and a careful study of the numerous drawings and engravings of these paintings.

The great reservoir known as the Sette Sale, which really consists of nine great chambers side by side, also belonged originally to the Golden House, as its construction and orientation show, though it was later made to serve Trajan's thermae. Apparently rooms were built on top of it. 'these vaults had buildings over them, for we found at the top of them mosaick pavement,' Pococke.

As to the internal decoration, we are told that Nero collected hundreds of works of art from all over the world for the adornment of the palace. For the rest, the coloured marbles were in great part removed by Trajan; and the gems and pearls mentioned by Suetonius seem to have shared their fate. Nor have the dining-rooms as yet come to light, which he describes, with their ceilings of ivory plaques, through which flowers could be scattered, or pierced with pipes for spraying perfumes-still less the circular one which continually revolved day and night. Nor have traces of either salt or sulphurous water been recognised in the channels and pipes. Either there is much more yet to be found, or his account is somewhat exaggerated. But the palace is sufficiently interesting as it is.

At the time of Nero's death the Golden House was not completed, and Otho at once assigned a large sum (50,000,000 sesterces, or 500,000 Pounds for its completion). Vitellius and his wife are said to have ridiculed it as mean and lacking in comfort, but this may have been only gossip.

Vespasian and his successors, who knew how unpopular its construction had been, vied with one another in restoring its site to public uses.

He himself began by draining the lake in the centre of the park and erecting the Colosseum on its site, thereby restoring the streets of the whole quarter to public uses onee more. The works of art which Nero had colleeted in the Golden House were dedicated by Vespasian in the temple of Peaee and other buildings erected by him.

His son Titus ereeted thermae (q.v.) opposite the Colosseum ; but the main palace must have still remained in use during his reign; for Pliny saw there in 79 A.D. the Laoeoon. As in almost the next sentenee he speaks of the works of art in the Palatinae domus Caesarum, the Golden House must be meant; though there is some doubt whether the Laocoon was actually found in Room 80 in 1506. There are also traces of alterations in some of the rooms at this period. On the Palatine the fire of 80 appears to have destroyed what the fire of Nero had spared, and Domitian was entirely oeeupied in rebuilding the imperial palaees. As we have seen it is unlikely that the vestibule had been destroyed as yet. Trajan had hardly completed Domitian's work when a fire in 104 A.D. destroyed the Golden House and hastened his intention of constructing his huge thermae (q.v.) on the site. A number of the openings of the domus Aurea were walled up with concrete faced with brickwork and opus reticulatum (see Ill. 20) in order to give greater stability, and the rooms were filled with rubbish execpt for the construction of the oratory of S. Felicitas there in the sixth century A.D. Here was found a very interesting calendar.

The vestibule was finally destroyed by Hadrian in 121 A.D., and the temple of Rome erected on its site; and after that the Golden House has no history. The regio aurea of the Middle Ages has wrongly been fixed here; see AURA. Owing to the erroneous identification of the Baths of Trajan with the Baths of Titus, the ruins were called Palazzo di Tito during the Renaissance and in the seventeenth century, though De Romanis, Piale and Fea knew the truth as early as the 'twenties of last eentury. The history of the excavations is given by Weege, who also provides a full bibliography of drawings, plans, engravings.
 
4 - 71 M. AURELIUS SOLANUS, DOMUS
on the Esquiline, east of the horti Maeeenatis, west of the via Merulana (?), known only from a lead pipe.
 
4 - 72 AURELIA SEVERA, DOMUS
only known from a lead pipe found either on the site of the baths of Diocletian or to the east of it, towards the Praetorian camp.
 
4 - 73 BALBINUS, DOMUS
somewhere on the Carinae (Hist. Aug. Balb. 16), but otherwise unknown, unless it be a mere invention from Suet. 
 
4 - 74 BARONIA IUSTA,DOMUS 
on the Esquiline (?), known only from a lead pipe.
 
4 - 75 L. BELLIENUS, DOMUS
the house of an unknown person (RE iii. 253) that was burned at the time of the funeral of Caesar, and therefore near the forum.
 
4 - 76 BETITIUS PERPETUUS ARZYGIUS, DOMUS
close to the ara incendii Neroniani on the Quirinal, under the present Palazzo dell' Esposizione, where various remains have been found. Arzygius was corrector Siciliae between 3and 330 A.D. is a dedication to another man of the same name, perhaps his son.
 
4 - 77 BIBULUS, DOMUS
(M. Calpurnius Bibulus, Caesar's colleague in the consulate in 59 B.C.):  Mentioned only by Appian. Its site is unknown.
 
4 - 78 Q. BLAESIUS IUSTUS, DOMUS
On the Esquiline (?), known only from a lead pipe of the end of the second century which bears his name and that of P. Aelius Romulus Augg. lib.
 
4 - 79 BRUTTIUS PRAESENS, DOMUS
Mentioned in the Notitia in Region III, apparently for some special reason. It probably was situated near the baths of Trajan. This Bruttius may have been the consul of 180 A.D. or a descendant of his.
 
4 - 80 CAECILIUS CAPITO, DOMUS.
A lead pipe bearing his name was found west of the via Lata, north of the Saepta, and must have been supplied by the aqua Virgo.
 
4 - 81 L. CAECILIUS METELLUS, DOMUS
on the Palatine. It is mentioned only once, where it is called cors in jest.
 
4 - 82 CAECILII, DOMUS
According to the legend S. Caecilia was exposed for three days to the heat of the calidarium in the baths of the house of her family, during the persecution of M. Aurelius. Excavations under the church dedicated to her in Trastevere brought to light (in 1899-1900 considerable remains of Roman brick walls of the first half of the second century A.D., intermingled with still earlier (though not republican) structures in opus quadratum. There are also later walls (third and fourth century) with rough mosaic pavements. In one room are circular basins, for the fulling of cloth or for tanning (see CORARIA SEPTIMIANA). To the upper floor of the aneient building belongs the room heated with a hypocaust, now in the chapel on the right of the present church. The older basiliea was perhaps to the left of this. 
 
4 - 83 CAECINA DECIUS, DOMUS.
situated, according to the testimony of fourth century inscriptions, on the south-west side of the Aventine, above the porta Lavernalis, near S. Alessio.
 
4 - 84 CAECINA LARGUS, DOMUS.
see DOMUS CRASSI, DOMUS SCAURI.
 
4 - 85 CAELIA GALLA, DOMUS.
see MAECIUS BLANDUS.
 
4 - 86 M. CAELIUS, DOMUS.
a house on the Palatine hired by Caelius in order to be near Cicero.
 
4 - 87 CAELIUS SATURNINUS, DOMUS.
a house belonging to the Caelii of the fourth eentury, situated between the via Lata and the western slope of the Quirinal, just north of the present Piazza della Pilotta, where inscriptions and remains have been found.
 
4 - 88 CAESAR, DOMUS
in the Subura, where Julius Caesar lived, and where the grammarian Antonius Gnipho taught for a time before he had a house of his own
 
4 - 89 CAESETIUS RUFUS, DOMUS
of unknown location but near that of Fulvia, the wife of Antonius, who coveted the house and therefore caused the proscription of its owner 
 
4 - 90 Q. CANUSIUS PRAENESTINUS, DOMUS
a lead pipe bearing his name was found on the Esquiline, near S. Maria Maggiore. He appears to have owned brickfields, and is mentioned in several other inscriptions. He was consul suffectus about A.D. 157
 
4 - 91 CARMINIA LIVIANA DIOTIMA, DOMUS

Her name occurs several times on a large lead pipe of the end of the second or beginning of the third century A.D., belonging to other owners also, P. Attius Pudens, T. Flavius Valerianus, C. Annius Laevonicus Maturinus (?), which was found between the porta Tiburtina and the porta Labicana in making the railway. For her genealogy, see Pros.
 
4 - 92 SPURIUS CASSIUS
on the west slope of the Carinae. Sp. Cassius was put to death in 485 i.c. for alleged treason, and the temple of TELLUS (q.v.) was afterwards erected on the site of his house 
 
4 - 93 CASSIUS ARGILLUS, DOMUS
the house of a certain senator, Argillus, which was said to have been pulled down by order of the senate, after its owner had counselled peace with Hannibal after the battle of Cannae (Serv. Aen. viii. 345). This was one of the stories invented to account for the name Argiletum.
 
4 - 94 C. CASSIUS LONGINUS, DOMUS
The famous jurist, who was banished by Nero. It is mentioned only by Juvenal (x. 16) and its site is unknown.
 
4 - 95 CATILINE, DOMUS
The only authority for the existence of a house of Catiline on the Palatine is a passage in Suet. de Gramm. This passage is often referred to the house of Catulus; but it may be argued that the adjeetive of Catulus is Catulianus just as Catullianus is the adjeetive of Catullus; whereas Catulina is admissible as a form of Catilina. We know nothing of its site; LR I 9 places it ' on the edge of the hill facing the Circus Maximus '; Boni preferred to identify it with the house whieh he diseovered under the so-ealled lararium of the Flavian palaee
 
4 - 96 Q. LUTATIUS CATULUS, DOMUS
an unusually magnificent house built by Catulus after his victory over the Cimbri, on the Palatine hill, near his porticus (q.v.). It was on the site of the earlier house of Fulvius Flaccus, and was incorporated by Augustus in his house about 20 B.C. 
 
4 - 97 CEIONIUS RUFUS VOLUSIANUS, DOMUS
see DOMUS LAMPADII.
 
4 - 98 CENSORINUS, DOMUS
see DOMUS CICERONIS.
 
4 - 99 CENSORINUS TYRANNUS, DOMUS
see DOMUS TITI.
 
4 - 100 M. TULLIUS CICERO, DOMUS
on the north-east side of the Palatine hill, over- looking the forum, in conspectu totiusurbis. Cicero bought this house in 62 B.C. for HS. 3,500,000 from Marcus Crassus. It adjoined the PORTICUS CATULI (q.v.), and was built on the site previously occupied by the house of the tribune M. Livius Drusus. When Cicero was banished, Clodius burned his house, enlarged the porticus of Catulus, and erected a shrine of Libertas. After Cicero's recall legal proceedings were instituted, and he recovered the site, and damages sufficient to partially rebuild the house. The house afterwards belonged to L. Marcius Censorinus, consul in 39 B.C., and to Statilius Sisenna, consul in A.D. 
 
4 - 101 Q. CICERO, DOMUS
On the Carinae adjoining the temple of Tellus on the Palatine hill, near his brother's house, but mentioned only once.
 
4 - 102 L. FABIUS CILO, DOMUS
Presented by Septimius Severus to Cilo, his intimate friend and praefectus urbi in 203 A.D. It is mentioned in the Regionary Catalogue in Region XII, and on an inseribed lead pipe found near S. Balbina, on the Aventine. Considerable remains of substructions, of an earlier date, however, still exist on the way up to and under the monastery, while the church itself was formed out of a rectangular hall of the house. A fragment of the Marble Plan may also indicate this house.
 
4 - 103 ARPIUS CLAUDIUS, DOMUS
Mentioned only once as being near the forum.
 
4 - 104 APPIUS CLAUDIUS MARTIALIS, DOMUS
On the western part of the ridge of the Quirinal, known only from a lead pipe found in the vigna of the Cardinal d'Este in the sixteenth century, corresponding with the west part of the Palazzo del Quirinale. Appius Claudius Martialis was leg. Aug. pro praet. Prov. Thraeiae.
 
4 - 105 APPIUS CLAUDIUS PULCIIER, DOMUS
Only mentioned once as in Campo Martio extremo. See Constans, Un correspondant de Ciceron, Appius Claudius Pulcher.
 
4 - 106 CLAUDIUS CENTUMAIUS, DOMUS
An apartment house (insula) on the Caelian, which the owner was ordered to demolish because its height interfered with the observations of the augurs. Notwithstanding this order, he sold it to P. Calpurnius Lanarius, and was sued by the latter for damages.
 
4 - 107 TI. CLAUDIUS NERO, DOMUS
See DOMUS LIVIAE.
 
4 - 108 CLAUDII, DOMUS
On the Quirinal, near the thermae Constantini and the modern Palazzo Saeripante, where lead pipes inscribed with the names of T. Flavius Claudius Claudianus  and Claudia Vera c.f. seem to indicate a house of the patrician Claudii. Here was also found a mosaic of a ship entering a harbour. Cf. BALNEUM CLAUDIANUM.
 
4 - 109 CLEMENS, DOMUS
The church of Clemens, near the Moneta, is mentioned in the inscription on a slave's collar of the Constantinian period. Presbyters of the titulus Clementis were present at the synods of 499 2nd 595.

Interesting remains of the house, belonging to the second and third centuries A.D., with a fine stucco ceiling in one room, are still to be seen. They include a Mithraeum, the most perfectly preserved of all known in Rome. They had been discovered in 1861 ff. by Father Mullooly; and they have recently been rendered permanently accessible by the construction of a drain
 
4 - 110 CLODIUS, DOMUS.
the house that Clodius intended to build, and apparently began, on part of the site of Cicero's house and that of his neighbour, Q. Seius 
 
4 - 111 M. COCCEIUS NERVA, DOMUS
a lead pipe bearing his name was found on the Esquiline, whieh may have belonged either to the supply of a house belonging to him, or to a pipe line laid by him as curator aquarum in 24-34 A.D.
 
4 - 112 COMMODIANA, DOMUS
a designation of the imperial palaee found onee in extant literature, probably referring to the Domus Augustiana. The term is now sometimes used to denote the additions supposed to have been built by Commodus, but no such additions can be satisfactorily identified; and it is better to suppose that we have to do with a piece of flattery on a par with the change of the name of the month of August.
 
4 - 113 CORNELII FRONTO ET QUADRATUS, DOMUS
Several pipes bearing their name were found near the so-ealled auditorium of the horti Maecenatis. Fronto may be the tutor of M. Aurelius and Lucius Verus.
 
4 - 114 L. CORNELIUS PUSIO, DOMUS
probably on the Quirinal, near the present Banea d'Italia, where some traees of walls, fragments of a bronze statue (the head is well preserved) and an inseribed tablet were found. This Cornelius Pusio was commander of the sixteenth legion under Claudius.
 
4 - 115 SEX. CORNELIUS REPENTINUS, DOMUS
Near S. Alessio on the Aventine (?), known only from a lead pipe, which mentions him as praefectus praetorio clarissimus vir, an office which he held at the end of the reign of Antoninus Pius.
 
4 - 116 CORNELIA TAURI, DOMUS
F. T. Axi (uxor): situated on the Quirinal, just east of the Via dei Serpenti in the Via Nazionale. This Cornelia was the wife or daughter of Sisenna Statilius Taurus. T. Axius is unknown.
 
4 - 117 CORNELIA L. F. VOLUSI SATURNINI, DOMUS
Known only from a lead pipe found among some earlier buildings under the southern exedra of the thermae Diocletiani.
 
4 - 118 CORNIFICIA, DOMUS
Mentioned in the Regionary Catalogues in Region XII, next to the cohors iv vigilum, and on a lead pipe. It was probably between these barraeks and the vicus portae Raudusculanae. Cornifieia was probably the younger sister of Mareus Aurelius, who married M. Ummidius Quadratus.
 
4 - 119 COSMUS AUG. LIB. A RATIONIBUS, DOMUS
Near S. Sabina, on the Aventine, where a lead pipe bearing his name was found in remains of a building of the early seeond century. De Rossi believes that the house of Caecina Decius Maximus Basilius included a part of this house.
 
4 - 120 L. CRASSUS, DOMUS
On the Palatine, near that of Scaurus, with which it seems to have been united at a later period, for the whole property belonged to Caecina Largus in the first century A.D. This house was famous for its six columns of Hymettan marble-the first set up in any private house in Rome-and for six lotos trees that were burned in the fire of Nero when they were more than 180 years old. Because of this magnificence Crassus was called the Palatine Venus.
 
4 - 121 M. CRASSUS, DOMUS
see M. TULLIUS CICERO.
 
4 - 122 M. CURIUS DENTATUS, DOMUS
Given to Curius, together with fifty jugera of land, by the people of Rome, apud Tifatam, that is, near a grove of oaks that was afterwards known as TIFATA CURIA.
 
4 - 123 DAPINIS, DOMUS
In the via Tecta in the eampus Martius, near the Tarentum, previously the property of an unknown Daphnis, but belonging in 88 A.D. to Julius Martialis.
 
4 - 124 DIADUMENUS AUG. L. A LIBELLIS, DOMUS
On the Caelian, near the present military hospital, known only from the inscription on a lead pipe (CIL xv. 7444） of about the middle of the first century A.D..
 
4 - 125 DION, DOMUS
Mentioned only in Not. in Region X, and otherwise unknown
 
4 - 126 DOMITIANA, DOMUS
The house of Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, the father of Nero, on the Sacra via, in front of whieh the Arval Brethren offered sacrifices in his memory. Domitius died in 40 A.D., and the extant fragments of the Aeta Fratrum Arvalium reeord three eelebrations, in 55. 
 
4 - 127 CN. DOMITIUS CALVINUS, DOMUS
Built during the principate of Augustus on the Velia, on the site of the shrine of Mutunus Tutunus (q.v.), which was said to have stood there from the foundation of the city.
 
4 - 128 ELPIDIUS v.c., DOMUS
On the Caelian, known only from the inscription on a slave's collar. This Elpidius may be the Helpidius who was proconsul of Afriea in 402 A.D., and a correspondent of Symmachus.
 
4 - 129 ENNIUS, DOMUS
On the Aventine, probably on its north-east slope near the southern end of the circus Maximus.
 
4 - 130 EQUITIUS, DOMUS
On the Esquiline, adjacent to the church of S. Martino ai Monti, in which the Titulus Equitii was founded by Pope Silvester I.
 
4 - 131 SEX. ERUCIUS CLARUS, DOMUS
A pipe bearing his"name was found in the campus Viminalis sub aggere. He may be identical with the man who was consul for the second time in 146 A.D., described by Gellius as 'vir morum et litterarum veterumstudiosissimus '. CIL mentions a slave 'de domo Eruci Clari.'
 
4 - 132 FABIUS FORTUNATUS, DOMUS
A house on the CLIVUS CAPSARIUS (q.v.) in Aventino Maiore. It is mentioned only in a fragment of the Acta Arvalia of 240 A.D. 
 
4 - 133 L. FABIUS GALLUS, DOMUS
His name is mentioned on five pipes found in the Via dei Serpenti between the Via Cavour and the Colosseum, and on two found on the site of the Finance Ministry in the Via Venti Settembre. It is therefore uncertain what inference should be drawn as to the situation of his house.
 
4 - 134 FABIA PAULINA, DOMUS
see VETTIUS AGORIUS.
 
4 - 135 C. FABRICIUS, DOMUS
see COMPITUM FABRICII.
 
4 - 136 FAUSTA, DOMUS
Mentioned once, in 3A.D.. It may have been a part of the domus Lateranorum which continued to exist separately.
 
4 - 137 FLAMINIA, DOMUS
The house of the flamen Dialis, probably near the atrium Vestae.
 
4 - 138 FLAMEN QUIRINALIS, DOMUS
Near the Doliola in the Velabrum, but mentioned only once 
 
4 - 139 FLAVIUS EUGENIUS ASELLUS, DOMUS 
On the Capitoline hill. Asellus was comes largitionum in 469 A.D., and afterwards praefectus urbi
 
4 - 140 T. FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS CLAUDIANUS v.c. , DOMUS 
See DOMUS CLAUDIORUM.
 
4 - 141 T. FLAVIUS SABINUS, DOMUS 
The house of the brother of Vespasian (or of his son) on the Quirinal between the Alta Semita and the vicus Longus, just south of the present church of S. Andrea, as is shown by the discovery of a travertine cippus'. Where these inscriptions are not cited. 
 
4 - 142 T. FLAVIUS SALINATOR, DOMUS 
A lead pipe bearing his name was found to the east of the house of T. Flavius Sabinus 
 
4 - 143 T. FLAVIUS TIBERIANUS, DOMUS 
On the Esquiline, known only from a lead pipe, of the second century, that was found at the corner of the Via Mazzini and Via Napoleone III. The house seems to have belonged afterwards to M. Tuticius Capito.
 
4 - 144 FLAVIUS VEDIUS ANTONINUS c.v. , DOMUS 
On the Viminal, near the Ministero delle Finanze, known only from a lead pipe of the second or third century
 
4 - 145 FRONTO, DOMUS
See DOMUS HORATIANA, DOMUS,HORTI MAECENATIS.
 
4 - 146 M. FULVIUS FLACCUS, DOMUS
Near the north corner of the Palatine, destroyed after the murder of its owner in 121 B.C. The house of Catulus was erected on its site
 
4 - 147 C. FULVIUS PLAUTIANUS, DOMUS
On the slope of the Quirinal, north of the royal gardens, where some remains and two water-pipes bearing his name have been found. This Plautianus was the famous friend of Septimius Severus.
 
4 - 148 FULVIA, DOMUS
Wife of M. Antoninus, near that of Caesetius Rufus, but of unknown location.
 
4 - 149 GAIANA, DOMUS 
see DOMUS TIBERIANA.
 
4 - 150 GALERIA FUNDANA, DOMUS.
The wife of Vitellius: on the Aventine.
 
4 - 151 GELOTIANA, DOMUS
A house on the slope of the Palatine, overlooking the circus Maximus, which Caligula seems to have incorporated in the imperial palace. For a description of some existing remains, often identified with this house, see DOMUS AUGUSTIANA.
 
4 - 152 GEMINIA BASSA c.f. , DOMUS
Just inside the porta Viminalis, known only from a lead pipe of the beginning of the third century. 
 
4 - 153 GENUCIUS MARINIANUS, DOMUS
just south-east of S. Maria Maggiore (?), known only from a lead pipe of the middle of the third century A.D.
 
4 - 154 G. .. AR.. .. .... C.ERMANIANUS (sic) e.v. , DOMUS 
Known only from a lead pipe of the fourth or fifth eentury, found at the south-east corner of the thermae Constantini, near the Banea d'Italia.
 
4 - 155 GERMANICUS
The father of Caligula, on the Palatine and mentioned only by Josephus. Its loeation is unknown, and no identification as yet proposed is acceptable.
 
4 - 156 GREGORIUS MAGNUS, DOMUS
Situated on the elivus Seauri, opposite the JOHANNIS ET PAULI (q.v.). In it Gregory founded the church which still bears his name, in honour of S. Andrew, about 580 A.D. Johannes Diaeonus speaks of some paintings executed here during Gregory's lifetime by his order, representing himself and his parents, whieh are now no longer visible. The name domus Aniciorum is often applied to it, in as much as Gregory belonged to the family of the Anicii Petronii. Pope Agapetus I (535-536) had previously founded a library here, the dedicatory inscription of which is preserved, and some remains of which exist.
 
4 - 157 (H)ATERIUS LATRONIANUS, DOMUS
A lead pipe bearing his name belonging to the middle or end of the second century A.D. was found at the north-west angle of the Finance Ministry. The tomb of Q. Haterius stood on the right of the via Nomentana not far off, and served as foundation to one of the towers of the porta Nomentana of the Aurelian wall. See SEP. Q. HATERII.
 
4 - 158 L. HERMONIUS IUSTUS, DOMUS 
see STABULA IIII FACTIONUM.
 
4 - 159 HOMULLUS, DOMUS 
Probably M. Valerius Homullus, consul in 152 A.D. The house is mentioned once, but is otherwise unknown.
 
4 - 160 HORATIANA, DOMUS.  
mentioned only in the Scholiast to Juvenal. It is quite uncertain which Fronto is meant.
 
4 - 161 A. HORTENSIUS LICINIANUS, DOMUS 
Lead pipes bearing his name were found near the right bank of the Tiber, above the Mausoleum of Hadrian, in the so-ealled Prati di Castello.
 
4 - 162 HORTENSIUS, DOMUS 
On the southern half of the Palatine. This modest house was purchased by Octavian, and occupied by him before the building of the domus Augustiana (Suet. Aug. 7. It is probably to be identified with the DOMUS AUGUSTI.
 
4 - 163 IOHANNES ET PAULUS, DOMUS 
The house in which S. John and S. Paul were murdered, situated on the Caelian just south-west of the porticus Claudia, in the present Via di SS. Giovanni e Paolo (perhaps the CLIVUS SCAURI, q.v.), under the church of that name. The excavations show a private dwelling of the second century, enlarged and rebuilt in the third and fourth, in which, probably in the second half of the third century, a titulus was instituted (titulus Byzantis), while Pammachius founded the basilica at the end of the fourth century. The enlargement consisted for the most part in connecting two houses that had been separated by a narrow street. Upwards of thirty rooms have been opened up, among them a cavaedium, with five rows of three rooms each on the south side, bathrooms, storerooms and stairways. The discovery of an interesting Pagan painting with a marine scene in 1909 may be noticed. The house had three stories, traces of which are visible, and an arcade in front, with two rows of windows above. The facade resembles that of the houses of Ostia.
 
4 - 164 C. IULIUS AVITUS, DOMUS 
known only from the inscription on a lead pipe found on the Viminal hill, under the Teatro Costanzi. He may have been the husband of Iulia Maesa. Here was found a fine statue of a hermaphrodite. 
 
4 - 165 IULII CEFALII cc. vv. , DOMUS 
A little north of the aqua Antoniniana, about halfway between the porta Ardeatina and the porta Appia, where some ruins were found, and an inscribed waterpipe
 
4 - 166 T. IULIUS FRUGI, DOMUS 
A fragment of a marble slab bearing his name was found on the site of the Banca d'Italia, but it does not give sufficient warrant for the existence of his house here, inasmuch as, though found in the ruins of a private house of the second century A.D., the place had been used by marble workers in the Middle Ages and the inscription itself was found in a modern drain
 
4 - 167 IULIUS MARTIALIS, DOMUS
In the via Tecta in the campus Martius, near the Tarentum
 
4 - 168 IULIUS POMPEIUS RUSONIANUS, DOMUS
on the south-west slope of the Quirinal, where three pipes, inscribed with his name, were found under the Teatro Nazionale. Pompeius was (probably) magister xvvirum sacris faciundis in 204 A.D.
 
4 - 169 IULIUS PROCULUS, DOMUS 
Probably on the eastern side of the so-called clivus Palatinus, about at the north corner of the present vigna Barberini, although the exact location depends somewhat upon the extent of the CLIVUS SACER (q.v.). Iulius was the friend of Martial, to whom the poet sends his first book.
 
4 - 170 M. LAELIUS FULVIUS MAXIMUS, DOMUS 
known only from an inscribed waterpipe found at the north-west corner of the Ministero delle Finanze on the Quirinal. Laelius was perhaps the consul of 227 A.D.
 
4 - 171 LAMIAE
see HORTI LAMIARUM, DOMUS.
 
4 - 172 CEIONIUS RUFUS VOLUSIANUS LAMPADIUS, DOMUS 
On the Viminal, near the baths of Constantine. Lampadius was praef. urbi in 366 A.D.
 
4 - 173 LATERANI, DOMUS
Under the church of S. John Lateran, to which it gave its name. The house was presented to T. Sextius Lateranus, consul in 197 A.D., by his friend, the Emperor Septimius Severus. It is probable, if not certain, that this was the egregiae Lateranorum aedes that belonged to Plautius Lateranus, who was executed by Nero for complicity in the conspiracy of Piso (see L. LUSIUS PETELLINUS, DOMUS), and that it was simply restored to the Laterani by Severus. The greater part of the remains that have been found belong to this period, including two rooms with mosaic pavement found under the pavement of the baptistery in 1924.

Although ordinarily called domus Laterana (Hist. Aug. M. Ant. I), it must have fallen again into imperial hands, for Constantine presented it to Pope Miltiades in 3A.D., after which time it continued to be the official residence of the popes until it was destroyed by the gradual enlargement of the Lateran basilica.
 
4 - 174 LENAEUS, DOMUS
Probably the house belonging to Lenaeus, a freedman of Pompeius, who is said to have taught on the Carinae, near the temple of Tellus
 
4 - 175 C. LICINIUS CALVIUS, DOMUS
the house of the orator that was occupied by Augustus for a time before he moved up to the Palatine (Suet. Aug. 7. It was near the forum, and above the SCALAE ANULARIAE (q.v.), but the location of these scalae is very uncertain.
 
4 - 176 LICINIUS SURA, DOMUS.
see THERMAE SURANAE for the house on the Aventine. Sura probably had another house on the Caelian, near the Lateran, where the base of a statue with a dedicatory inscription was found in the sixteenth century
 
4 - 177 DOMUS LIVIAE.
see DOMUS AUGUSTI.
 
4 - 178 M. LIVIUS DRUSUS, DOMUS
on the site afterwards occupied by the house of Cicero 
 
4 - 179 LUCINA, DOMUS
On the via Lata, near the CATABULUM (q.v.), but probably separate from it. It belonged to a certain Lucina, who established in it the church of S. Marcello, called after Pope Marcellus (309 A.D.).
 
4 - 180 LUCINIANA, DOMUS
mentioned only once ad lucum Pisonis, the location of which is entirely unknown (BC 1905, 229). Liciniana is the emendation generally adopted.
 
4 - 181 L. LUSIUS PETELLINUS, DOMUS
A lead pipe of the middle or end of the first century A.D. bearing his name was found on the site of the house of the Laterani. It may be conjectured that he became the owner of the house after the execution of Plautius Lateranus.
 
4 - 182 Q. MAECIUS BLANDUS, DOMUS
Lead pipes bearing his name and that of Caelia Galla were found under the monastery of Aracoeli on the Capitol.
 
4 - 183 MAMURRA, DOMUS
Somewhere on the Caelian. This was the first house in Rome in which the walls were entirely faced with marble.
 
4 - 184 MANCINUS, DOMUS
see TIFATA MANCINI.
 
4 - 185 M. MANLIUS, DOMUS
An aedicula on the Carinae. This Manlius was consul in 149 B.C.
 
4 - 186 M. MANLIUS CAPITOLINUS, DOMUS
on the arx, on the site of the later temple of Juno Moneta. The house was destroyed in 384 B.C. by order of the senate
 
4 - 187 MARCELLA, DOMUS
somewhere on the Aventine, mentioned only by St. Jerome
 
4 - 188 T. MARCIUS FIGULUS, DOMUS
of unknown location, and mentioned only once 
 
4 - 189 PUBLIA MARCIA SERGIA FUSCA, DOMUS

A lead pipe bearing her name was found close to that of Naevius Clemens in a group of tabernae
 
4 - 190 C. MARIUS, DOMUS.
built by Marius near the forum (Plut. Marius 3, but otherwise unknown.
 
4 - 191 M. VALERIUS MARTIALIS, DOMUS.
On the Quirinal, on a street leading from the temple of Flora to the Capitolium vetus. Previously Martial seems to have lived in lodgings in the street AD PIRUM.
 
4 - 192 L. MARIUS MAXIMUS PERPETUUS AURELIANUS, DOMUS.
on the Caelian, in the present villa Fonseca, where inscriptions were found in 1553. This Marius was consul in 197 or 198, and the historian of the emperors.
 
4 - 193 C. MARIUS PUDENS CORNELIANUS, DOMUS.
Known only from a bronze tablet of the year 222 A.D., found near S. Prisca on the Aventine. Pudens was legatus of the seventh legion.
 
4 - 194 P. MARTIUS PIIILIPPUS, DOMUS.
A lead pipe bearing his name was found on the right bank of the Tiber, opposite the island
 
4 - 195 MERULANA, DOMUS.
Known only from a letter of Gregory the Great of 593 A.D., but probably dating from the early empire. It was near the church of S. Matteo in Merulana, that is, near the place where the Via Machiavelli crosses the old Via Merulana.
 
4 - 196 M. VALERIUS MESSALA CORVINUS, DOMUS.
(a) on the Palatine, see M. Antonius; (b) on the Pincian; known only from an inscription found in the Medici gardens; it is not noted in Pros. 
 
4 - 197 L. MARIUS MAXIMUS PERPETUUS AURELIANUS, DOMUS.
On the Caelian, in the present villa Fonseca, where inscriptions were found in 1553. This Marius was consul in 197 or 198, and the historian of the emperors.
 
4 - 198 C. MARIUS PUDENS CORNELIANUS, DOMUS.
Known only from a bronze tablet of the year 222 A.D., found near S. Prisca on the Aventine. Pudens was legatus of the seventh legion.
 
4 - 199 P. MARTIUS PIIILIPPUS, DOMUS
A lead pipe bearing his name was found on the right bank of the Tiber, opposite the island 
 
4 - 200 MERULANA, DOMUS
Known only from a letter of Gregory the Great of 593 A.D., but probably dating from the early empire. It was near the church of S. Matteo in Merulana, that is, near the place where the Via Machiavelli crosses the old Via Merulana.
 
4 - 201 M. VALERIUS MESSALA CORVINUS, DOMUS
(a) on the Palatine, see M. Antonius; (b) on the Pincian; known only from an inscription found in the Medici gardens; it is not noted in Pros. 
 
4 - 202 T. ANNIUS MILO PAPINIANUS, DOMUS
(a) on the clivus Capitolinus (Cic. pro Mil. 6; (b) on the Cermalus, called the domus Anniana.
 
4 - 203 MUCIANUS, DOMUS
on the site of the thermae of Constantine (?) 
 
4 - 204 Q. MUNATIUS CELSUS.
just inside the porta Viminalis, and known only from an inscribed fistula. This Munatius was probably the procurator of Mauretania under Caracalla.
 
4 - 205 L. NAEVIUS CLEMENS, DOMUS.
Known only from two inscribed lead pipes, one of which was found just inside the porta Viminalis, and the other on the slope of the Quirinal in the villa Aldobrandini. Either Clemens had two houses, or the water conduit was very long. The latter hypothesis is no doubt correct; for the second pipe was found near the distributing reservoir.
 
4 - 206 NARCISSUS, DOMUS.
Probably on the west slope of the Quirinal, near the present Teatro Nazionale, and known only from inscribed fistulae.
 
4 - 207 NERATIUS CEREALIS, DOMUS.
see BALNEA NAERATII CEREALIS.
 
4 - 208 NUMA, DOMUS
said to have been on the Quirinal
 
4 - 209 CN. NUMICIUS PICUS CAESIANUS, DOMUS.
On the Viminal at the corner of the Vie Viminae and Principe Amedeo.
 
4 - 210 NUMMII, DOMUS.
On the Quirinal, just east of the Ministero della Guerra. Inscriptions found here show that this house was occupied by several members of the gens Nummia in the third and fourth centuries. For the Mithraeum, see Cumont, Textes et Monuments.
 
4 - 211 OCTAVIUS, DOMUS.
On the Sacra via. The identity of this Octavius is not known.
 
4 - 212 CN. OCTAVIUS, DOMUS.
On the Palatine. It is described as praeclara, and was built by Cn. Octavius, consul in 165 B.C. It was afterwards bought and removed by Scaurus, in order to permit of the enlargement of his own house.
 
4 - 213 L. OCTAVIUS FELIX, DOMUS
on the Viminal, known from the discovery of an inscribed fistula in its atrium at the south-west corner of the present railway station
 
4 - 214 OLLIANA, DOMUS
Known only from an inscribed fistula of unknown provenience, perhaps of the Christian period 
 
4 - 215 M. OPELLIIUS MACRINUS
On the Caelian, near the Lateran, under which an inscribed lead pipe bearing his name was found. He caused Caracalla to be assassinated, and became emperor in 217, but was defeated by Elagabalus and slain in 218.
 
4 - 216 PACILIANA, DOMUS
perhaps on the Palatine. It is mentioned only once (Cic. ad Att. i. 14. 7), where Quintus Cicero is said to have wished to buy it.
 
4 - 217 PACTUMEIA LUCILIA, DOMUS
On the west side of the Aventine, under the church of S. Anselmo, where considerable remains of an ancient house, with an interesting mosaic pavement and a lead pipe bearing her name were found. 
 
4 - 218 PALATINA, DOMUS
The general name for the palace of the emperors on the Palatine, according to the testimony of some inscriptions
 
4 - 219 PALMATA, DOMUS
Near the Porticus Curva (see FORUM TRAIANI), according to Cassiodorus. This is probably the same as the domus ad Palmam of L. Acilius Glabrio Faustus, consul in 438 A.D., in which the Theodosian Code is said to have been promulgated. Cf. also AD PALMAM.
 
4 - 220 PARTHORUM SEPTEM, DOMUS
Probably near the site where the thermae Caracallae were built. These houses were among those which Severus presented to his friends. They have been identified with some ruins to the north-west of the thermae.
 
4 - 221 PESCENNIANA, DOMUS
The house of Pescennius Niger.
 
4 - 222 PETRONIUS MAXIMUS, DOMUS
On the Oppius, just north of S. Clemente, where ruins and inscriptions have been found. Maximus seems to have constructed an open square here, before becoming emperor, which was probably close to his house in the via Labicana (see FORUM PETRONII MAXIMI).
 
4 - 223 Julius Philippus.
Mentioned only in the Notitia in Region II. It may have belonged to the Emperor Julius Philippus 244-249 A.D.
 
4 - 224 PINCIANA, DOMUS
The house of the Pincii on the Pincian hill, which became imperial property afterwards. Domus Pinciana occurs only in Cassiodorus, but it appears elsewhere as palatium Pinciorum or Pincis. Some of the marble decorations of this house were carried to Ravenna by Theodoric. See AQUA PINCIANA, HORTI ACILIORUM.
 
4 - 225 L. PISO, DOMUS
Known only from an inscribed pipe found in the Via della Ferratella, near the porta Caelimontana. It probably had no connection with the house rented by L. Calpurnius Piso in 53 B.C.. The man may be identified with the consul of 57 A.D., as Dressel suggests in CIL cit.
 
4 - 226 PLAUTIUS LATERANUS, DOMUS
see LATERANORUM DOMUS.
 
4 - 227 C. PLINIUS SECUNDUS, DOMUS
On the Esquiline, near the lacus Orphei. It had previously belonged to Albinovanus Pedo.
 
4 - 228 CN. POMPEIUS, DOMUS
On the Carinae, near the temple of Tellus. It was ornamented with rostra taken from captured pirate ships, and therefore called domus rostrata. V. Domaszewski maintains that the name domus rostrata is a mere invention-as also the story that it belonged to the Gordiani, inasmuch as it must have perished in the fire of Nero. After the death of Pompeius the house became the property of Antonius, and later of the imperial family. Tiberius lived in it before his accession, and in the third century it is said to have belonged to the Gordiani.

(b) According to Plutarch (Pomp. 40) Pompeius built himself a finer house than he had previously occupied, after the erection of his theatre. This second house was probably near his HORTI (q.v.) in the campus Martius and on the slope of the Pincian 
 
4 - 229 POMPONII, DOMUS
On the Quirinal, near the temples of Salus and Quirinus. This house belonged to a certain Tampilus, and afterwards to T. Pomponius Atticus. It was old-fashioned in its appointments, but had a delightful garden. It continued in the possession of the Pomponii, for an inscription found at the south-east corner of the Alta Semita and the clivus Salutis in 1558 indicates that T. Pomponius Bassus, curator alimentorum under Trajan, lived here in 101 A.D.
 
4 - 230 POSTUMII, DOMUS.
on the eastern slope of the Pincian, between the horti Luculliani and the horti Aeliorum, where inscriptions relating to M. Postumius Festus, L. Flavius Postumius, praef. urbi in 271 A.D., and T. Flavius Postumius Tiberius, consul in 301.
 
4 - 231 POTITUS, DOMUS.
On the Aventine, near the thermae Decianae, known only from the inscription on a slave's collar. De Rossi refers it to the Potitus who was vicarius urbis in 379-381.
 
4 - 232 SEX. PROPERTIUS, DOMUS.
Somewhere on the Esquiline, according to the poet's own statement
 
4 - 233 PUBLICA, DOMUS.
see REGIA and ATRIUM VESTAE.
 
4 - 234 PULVERATA, DOMUS.
Known only from the inscription on a slave's collar.
 
4 - 235 REX SACRORUM, DOMUS.
see REGIA.
 
4 - 236 L. ROSCIUS AELIANUS PACULUS, DOMUS:
On the Caelian, known from an inscribed pipe found at the entrance to the Villa Wolkonsky.
 
4 - 237 ROIUS HILARIO, DOMUS.
A lead pipe (of the time of Augustus or even earlier) bearing his name was found, with another bearing the name of Rubellia Bassa (of the beginning of the second century A.D.), under the crepido of the ancient road between the Circus and the Palatine. It is stated that the first pipe ran off towards the Palatine at right angles from the second (or, more probably, from another uninscribed pipe which ran parallel to it), and it may have supplied a house situated there.
 
4 - 238 ROSTRATA, DOMUS.
see POMPEIUS.
 
4 - 239 C. SALLUSTIUS CRISPUS, DOMUS.
see HORTI SALLUSTIANI.
 
4 - 240 M. SALLUSTIUS RUFUS TITILIANUS, DOMUS.
A lead pipe bearing his name was found in the campus Viminalis sub aggere.
 
4 - 241 M. AEMILIUS SAURUS, DOMUS.
On a cross street between the Sacra via and the Nova via, perhaps that at the east end of the Atrium Vestae. The house of Cn. Octavius was removed by Scaurus to provide room for the enlargement of his own. This was decorated with four columns of Hymettian marble, brought to Rome by Scaurus in his aedileship in 58 B.C. for the adornment of a temporary theatre. These were afterwards removed to the theatre of Marcellus, where they stood in 42 A.D. The house belonged then to Caecina Largus (as well as that of Crassus, so that they must have been close together).
 
4 - 242 P. SCIPIO AFRICANUS, DOMUS.
behind the tabernae Veteres, that is, just south of the forum. Ti. Sempronius Gracchus, censor in 169 B.C., bought this house, with the adjacent shops and stalls, out of public funds, and built on the site the basilica Sempronia
 
4 - 243 SCIPIO NASICA, DOMUS.
On the Sacra via, presented to Scipio (probably the consul of 191 B.C.) by the state ' quofacilius consuli posset ' 
 
4 - 244 Q. SEIUS POSTUMUS, DOMUS.
On the Palatine, bought by Clodius after he had caused Seius to be poisoned.
 
4 - 245 L. SEMPRONIUS RUFUS, DOMUS.
A lead pipe bearing his name was found on the right bank of the Tiber, opposite the pons Agrippae, just outside the Aurelian wall 
 
4 - 246 M. SERVILIUS FABIANUS, DOMUS.
On the Esquiline, just south of the clivus Suburanus and east of the porticus Liviae, known only from an inscription (CIL vi. 1517). Servilius was cos. suff. in 158 A.D. 
 
4 - 247 SERVIUS TULLIUS, DOMUS.
On the Esquiline, above the CLIVUS URBIUS (q.v.), probably near S. Pietro in Vincoli.
 
4 - 248 C. SESTIUS, DOMUS
In the Subura, where remains and an inscription were found near S. Maria di Monti.
 
4 - 249 T. SEXTIUS AFRICANUS, DOMUS
thought to have been at the corner of the Via del Babuino and the Via di Gesi e Maria, where a private house was discovered in making the foundations of the English Church of All Saints. The inscription is, however, fragmentary, and its provenance not absolutely certain. T. Sextius Africanus was consul suffectus in 59 A.D. 
 
4 - 250 SEXTIA CETHEGILLA.
A lead pipe bearing her name was perhaps found on the Esquiline, in the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele. She was the daughter of the Emperor Pupienus.
 
4 - 251 SILVERIUS, DOMUS.
A lead pipe inscribed pt Silveri v. in. was found near the Lateran.
 
4 - 252 C. SESTIUS, DOMUS.
In the Subura, where remains and an inscription were found near S. Maria di Monti.
 
4 - 253 T. SEXTIUS AFRICANUS, DOMUS.
Thought to have been at the corner of the Via del Babuino and the Via di Gesi e Maria, where a private house was discovered in making the foundations of the English Church of All Saints. The inscription is, however, fragmentary, and its provenance not absolutely certain. T. Sextius Africanus was consul suffectus in 59 A.D. 
 
4 - 254 SEXTIA CETHEGILLA.
A lead pipe bearing her name was perhaps found on the Esquiline, in the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele (CIL xv. 7537). She was the daughter of the Emperor Pupienus
 
4 - 255 SILVERIUS, DOMUS.
A lead pipe inscribed pt Silveri v. in. was found near the Lateran
 
4 - 256 APP. SILVIUS IUNIUS SILVINUS, DOMUS.
On the Quirinal, but known only from an inscribed pipe found in the vineyard of the Cardinal d'Este (corresponding with the western part of the royal palace) in the sixteenth century. Cf. APPIUS CLAUDIUS MARTIALIS.
 
4 - 257 D. SIMONIUS PROCULUS IULIANUS, DOMUS.
He was praefectus urbi before 254 A.D. A lead pipe bearing his name was found south-west of the Casino dell' Aurora of the Villa Ludovisi, and the sepulchral inscription of one of his dependants (alumnus) on the via Salaria.
 
4 - 258 SISENNA STATILIUS, DOMUS.
see DOMUS CICERONIS.
 
4 - 259 SPURIUS MAXIMUS, DOMUS
On the Quirinal, under the Palazzo Barberini, where an inscribed pipe and some ruins of a private house have been found. This Spurius was perhaps L. Spurius Maximus, trib. vigilum under Severus.

The drawings of a nymphaeum with well-preserved paintings which was found in this house referred to in BC cit. are at Windsor. There are also drawings in the Baddeley codex.
 
4 - 260 C. STERTINIUS XENOPHON, DOMUS.
On the Caelian, known only from an inscribed pipe. Stertinius was the physician of Claudius, and caused his death by poison 
 
4 - 261 C. SUETRIUS SABINUS, DOMUS.
This house has been located on the Aventine, but the evidence is insufficient
 
4 - 262 P. SULLA, DOMUS.
On the Palatine. It was seized by Clodius in the outbreak of 57 B.C.
 
4 - 263 SULPICIA PACATA, DOMUS.
A lead pipe bearing her name (second century A.D.） was found between the church of S. Crisogono and the excubitorium of the seventh cohort of the vigiles.
 
4 - 264 SULPICIA C.F. TRIARIA, DOMUS.
A lead pipe bearing her name was found north of the temple of Isis and Serapis in the third region.
 
4 - 265 SURA, DOMUS.
see LICINIUS SURA.
 
4 - 266 Q. AURELIUS SYMMACHUS, DOMUS.
( On the Caelian, near the Villa Casali, where inscriptions have been found.

( on the right bank of the Tiber, called pulcherrima, and burned in 367 A.D.
 
4 - 267 TAMPILIANA, DOMUS.
see POMPONII.
 
4 - 268 TARQUINIUS PRISCUS, DOMUS.
on the Velia, near the temple of Iupiter Stator 
 
4 - 269 TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS, DOMUS.
( ad Statoris; ( on the Esquiline, supra clivum Pullium ad Fagutalem lacum, near S. Pietro in Vincoli.
 
4 - 270 T. TATIUS, DOMUS.
On the arx, the site afterwards occupied by the temple of luno Moneta.
 
4 - 271 TERENTIUS CULLEO, DOMUS.
A lead pipe bearing his name was found at the corner of the (modern) Via Merulana and the Via dello Statuto, a little south-west of the porta Esquilina. He was consul suffectus in 40 A.D. 
 
4 - 272 TETRICUS, DOMUS.
On the Caelian: opposite the temple of Isis (v. INTER DUOS LUCOS). It was probably close to the boundary betweenRegions II and III, near SS. Quattro Coronati, and was called pulcherrima at the beginning of the fourth century. It belonged to C. Pius Esuvius Tetricus, who was defeated by Aurelian in 274 A.D. V. Domaszewski regards the whole passage as a sheer invention.
 
4 - 273 TETTIUS DAMIO, DOMUS.
On the Sacra via, known only from a mention in Cicero.
 
4 - 274 TETTIUS DAMIO, DOMUS.
On the Sacra via, known only from a mention in Cicero.
 
4 - 275 THEODOTE, DOMUS.
Mentioned only on a slave's collar, of unknown provenience.
 
4 - 276 TIBERIANA, DOMUS.
The palace erected by Tiberius on the north-west half of the Palatine. It is first mentioned in the accounts of the assassination of Galba, and must have been destroyed, not in the fire of Nero, but in that of 80 A.D., for we are told that Vespasian, and, as the construction and the brickstamps show, have been rebuilt under Domitian. Remains of an earlier house, in opus reticulatum, may be seen on the north side of the hill facing the Capitol, in and under the later substructions.

Caligula extended the palace towards the north-east certainly refers to the BASILICA IULIA (q.v.)), and thus made it into so imposing an edifice as to excite Pliny's remark bis vidimusurbem totam cingi domibus Gai et Neronis.

Of the remains of the original building of Tiberius we know practically nothing ; but scanty traces of the extension of Caligula down to the temple of Castor and Pollux have been recognised in the course of the latest excavations-a peristyle with a large open water-basin, 26 by 9 metres (in which a fragmentary inscription Germanici f. was found, which has generally been referred to Caligula), in the centre, situated behind the temple and orientated with the domus Tiberiana -and higher up, of the reservoir, in three stories, by which it was supplied with water. Of the stairs which must have connected this vestibule with the palace on the hill above, nothing now remains. The cryptoporticus on the south-east side of the domus Tiberiana is sometimes attributed to Nero; this would account for the break in the wall, where the branch to the DOMUS AUGUSTIANA (q.v.) goes off, which, of course, cannot be earlier than the time of Domitian.

Domitian appears to have reconstructed the whole palace; the excavations of 1728 on the summit of the hill brought to light some fragments of columns and cornices, which appear to have belonged to his time, and some similar fragments still lie about the garden which occupies the site. Further excavations were carried on here in 1860 ff. as to which we have very scanty information ; the whole rectangle (about 100 by 150 metres) seems to have had a large courtyard with pillars in the centre and to have been divided into three approximately similar parts, to judge from Rosa's plan. A great deal of it (more than is generally supposed) rests upon arched substructions; and that these have, as is only natural, undergone later repairs, is clear from the presence, a long way in, of a copy of the brick-stamp-Cxv. 1081 (145-155 A.D.); but further investigation is needed. For some fine pieces of pavement in opus sectile, see PT 183.

It is, of course, easier to study the outer extremities of the palace. At the north angle we must attribute to Domitian the huge pile, on the level of the forum, erected over the peristyle of Caligula, but on a divergent orientation, which is commonly known as the temple of AUGUSTUS (q.v.) with the two halls behind it, often called the BIBLIOTHECA TEMPLI DIVI AUGUSTI (q.v.), into which the church of S. Maria Antiqua was inserted before the sixth century; Wilpert, Mosaiken und Malereien, ii. passim), but by others supposed to be a reconstruction of the vestibule of the domus Gaiana. To him we must also attribute the reconstruction of the exterior of the substructions of the palace itself, and especially the double-tiered balcony above the clivus Victoriae-the so-called Bridge of Caligula; the rooms behind it are supposed to be guard rooms.

A single-tiered balcony of the same form continues all round the exterior of the substructions as far as the east angle.

Hadrian enclosed the 'Temple of Augustus ' group with a stately portico, with arcades connected by half columns. 'At the same time the lofty guardrooms on the slope above vanished, in their turn, behind even more lofty vaults and arches, which united the palace above to the new Atrium Vestae below, which is of the same period. As a link to unite these two great structures, Hadrian also built the majestic ramp by which one still ascends to the Palatine'.

On the south-west side of the palace there are traces of work of the beginning of the second century A.D., especially in the vaulted chambers described in BC 1894, and in the open fish pond above them.

The domus Tiberiana is mentioned in Hist. Aug. Pius o ; Marcus 6; Verus 2, 6, as the residence of the emperors at that time, though by DOMUS COMMODIANA (Commodus 1 the DOMUS AUGUSTIANA (q.v.) is probably meant; and its library is spoken of by Fronto.
 
4 - 277 TITUS FLAVIUS VESPASIANUS, DOMUS.
( mentioned once (possibly twice). This house was probably part of the domus Aurea of Nero, occupied by Titus and adjacent to his baths (q.v.), and afterwards destroyed by Trajan to secure room for his thermae.

( on the Quirinal next to the templum gentis Flaviae, and standing in the fourth century if it be not an invention, on the basis of Suet. Dom. i. 5(cf. GENS FLAVIA, TEMPLUM) as V. Domaszewski thinks.
 
4 - 278 TRANSITORIA, DOMUS.
A palace erected by Nero. Its object was to connect with the Palatine, not merely the HORTI MAECENATIS (q.v.) but other estates (HORTI LAMIANI, LOLLIANI, etc.) which in one way or another had come into the possession of the imperial house. It was destroyed by the fire of 64 A.D. and replaced by the domus Aurea. No remains of it were believed to exist, until the excavations made by Boni under the southern portion of the state apartments of the domus Augustana (Flavia) led to the rediscovery of the remains of a sumptuous and beautifully decorated palace in two stories. By some it is attributed to the DOMUS Q. LUTATII CATULI (q.v.), but this will not agree with the date of the construction. Others assign it to Claudius, owing to the existence of a quarry mark bearing his name on a piece of cornice found there; but it is a good deal more likely that we have to deal with the remains of a part of the domus Transitoria.

To the lower floor belongs a sunk garden; one wall of it is occupied by a magnificent nymphaeum, once decorated with polychrome marbles, but terribly damaged in the excavations made by the Farnese in 1721 sqq. In the centre were two pavilions with small columns, and between them garden beds, with vertical walls of curved slabs of marble, as in the ' Maison des Jardinieres ' at Timgad. The wall opposite the nymphaeum is decorated with niches. On the south-west is a room with extremely beautiful paintings-small scenes from the Homeric cycle, within a framework in which blue and gold are predominant. What little remains of the polychrome marble pavement and wall facing shows extreme delicacy and beauty. The irregular curving concrete foundations which cut through the whole of this part of the building belong to the domus Aurea, as they are certainly posterior to the fire of Nero and equally certainly anterior to Domitian.

Two rooms to the north-east, wrongly known as the baths of Livia, have been accessible since 172and their ceilings have been frequently drawn, which is, however, represented by Ronczewski. Fine coloured drawings of both exist in the breakfast-room of the Soane Museum in Lincoln's Inn Fields in London.

Beyond these rooms is a very large latrine, which has been wrongly thought to be the machinery chamber of a hydraulic lift, which would, it is supposed, have worked in a shaft over 120 feet deep found not far off. The dining-room with a revolving ceiling, which Boni supposed to have been worked by the same machinery, was in the domus Aurea.

From each end of the nymphaeum a flight of marble stairs ascended to the upper floor. Under the later triclinium only the bed of the pavement is left ; but to the south-west and north-east its white marble slabs can be seen, some three or four feet below the level of Domitian, who reconstructed this part of the palace with only one story, abolishing the lower floor entirely; while under his nymphaeum on the north-west may be seen a remarkably fine pavement of opus sectile, which when found showed clear and abundant traces of damage by fire. Close to it is a room which once contained a series of fountains, the water from which ran down to the nymphaeum below.

The piscina under the basilica of the Flavian palace is attributed to Nero by Boni, who wrongly refers Suet. cit. to the Palatine. See DOMUS AUREA, and DOMUS AUGUSTIANA.

Other remains belonging to the domus Transitoria have been found near the junction of the Nova via with the clivus Palatinus; for remains under the platform of the temple of Venus and Rome.
 
4 - 279 TULLUS HOSTILIUS, DOMUS.
( on the Velia.

( on the Caelian, destroyed by lightning with Tullus himself.
 
4 - 280 TURCII, DOMUS.
Between the Saepta and the porticus Divorum, in the campus Martius, south of S. Marco, where remains and inscriptions have been found. L. Turcius Secundus was praef. urbi in 363 A.D.
 
4 - 281 M. TUTICIUS CAPITO, DOMUS.
see T. FLAVIUS TIBERIANUS.
 
4 - 282 L. VAGELLIUS, DOMUS.
On the Caelian, near the Ospedale Militare, where an inscribed pipe was found. Vagellius was cos. suff. in 441/46 A.D. and a friend of Seneca.
 
4 - 283 VALERII, DOMUS.
( on the Caelian, on the site occupied now by the Ospedale dell' Addolorata, where many remains of pavements, frescoes, and works of art have been found, and eleven inscriptions relating to the family in the fourth century. This house was offered for sale in 404 A.D., but found no buyer on account of its magnificence, while six years later, after the sack of Rome by Alaric, it was sold for almost nothing. It seems to have been transformed into a hospital-Xenodochium Valeriorum or a Valeriis.

A little north of this site, in the villa Casali, were found other ruins and an inscribed basis of L,. Valerius Poplicola Maximus, consul in 232 or 253 A.D..

( on the Palatine, said to have been presented by the state to M. Valerius Volusus Maximus, dictator in 494 B.C..

( in summa Velia, the house in which P. Valerius Publicola, consul in 509 B.C., lived until he was forced to tear it down because it seemed too much like a stronghold, and to build again infra Veliam. This site was afterwards occupied by the temple of Vica Pota. According to a variant tradition, a house sub Veliis, or in Velia, was given to Valerius as a special honour. The body of P. Valerius is also said to have been buried in a sepulchre given by the state, and fragments of elogia of two members of the family, M. Valerius Messala Niger, consul in 69 B.C., and M. Valerius Messala Corvinus, consul in 31 B.C., have been found behind the basilica of Constantine, where they had probably been carried from their original position.

It is probable that the variants under ( and ( refer to one house, on the western slope of the Velia, where the sepulchre was also located.
 
4 - 284 M. VALERIUS BRADUA MAURICUS, DOMUS.
A lead pipe bearing his name was found on the Aventine near S. Alessio. He was consul in 191 A.D. and curator aquarum.
 
4 - 285 Q. VALERIUS VEGETUS, DOMUS.
On the Quirinal, between the Alta Semita and the vicus Longus, near the Ministero della Guerra, where some remains and an inscribed pipe have been found. Valerius was cos. suff. in 91 A.D. 
 
4 - 286 PUBLIA VALERIA COMASIA, DOMUS.

A lead pipe bearing her name was found on the Esquiline, and another on the Aventine. If both belonged to the same conduit, it must have been an exceptionally long one. She seems to have been the daughter of the consul of 220 A.D.
 
4 - 287 VALERIA EUNOEA, DOMUS.
Lead pipes bearing her name were found in 1776 in the garden of the Barberini nuns, south-west of the south-west exedra of the thermae of Diocletian.
 
4 - 288 VARENIUS LIBERALIS, DOMUS.
A lead pipe bearing his name was found on the Esquiline.
 
4 - 289 VECTILIANA, DOMUS.
on the Caelian in Region II, but its exact site is unknown. Commodus was killed in this house. 
 
4 - 290 VEDIUS POLLIO, DOMUS.
On the clivus Suburanus. Vedius bequeathed this house, which was famous for its magnificence, to Augustus, but that emperor tore it down to show his disapproval of such private residences, and built the porticus Liviae on its site.
 
4 - 291 P. VERGILIUS MARO, DOMUS.
On the Esquiline, near the horti Maecenatis.
 
4 - 292 VERUS, DOMUS.
Near the Domus Lateranorum on the Caelian.
 
4 - 293 VESPASIANUS, DOMUS.
on the Quirinal, in the street ad Malum Punicum, a site afterwards occupied by the templum gentis Flaviae (Suet. Dom. I; cf. GENS FLAVIA).
 
4 - 294 VETTIUS AGORIUS PRAETEXTATUS ET FABIA PAULINA, DOMUS
North-east of the porta Esquilina, between the Vie Rattazzi, Principe Umberto, Cappellini, and Principe Amedeo, where considerable remains and inscribed pipes have been found. Vettius was praef. urbi in 367 A.D. From the apparent extent of this property, it may perhaps be regarded as horti.
 
4 - 295 VIRIUS LUPUS IULIANUS, DOMUS
On the western slope of the Quirinal, where ruins and inscriptions have been found in the Via dei Serpenti, near the Banca d'Italia. Virius was legatus of Lycia and Pamphilia in the second century.
 
4 - 296 VITRUVIUS VACCUS, DOMUS.
On the Palatine. It was destroyed in 330 B.C., when its owner, a native of Fundi, was put to death for treason. The site was afterwards known as Vacci prata.
 
4 - 297 L. VOLUMNIUS, DOMUS.
On the Quirinal in the vicus Longus.
 
4 - 298 VULCACIUS RUFINUS, DOMUS.
On the Quirinal, near the vicus Longus. The ruins of this house, and an inscribed base were found under the Ministero della Guerra. Vulcacius was consul in 347; praef. urbi in 349 A.D., and an uncle of the Emperor Julian.
 
4 - 299 DUO AEDES.
A locality, probably a street, mentioned only in Not. as in Region IX.
 
4 - 300 DUODECIM PORTAE.
( Mentioned in the Regionary Catalogue in Region XI, and probably by Obsequens. It was probably the name of the open space or street at the west end of the circus Maximus, derived from the twelve carceres of the circus. ( Possibly a popular designation of some opening in the Servian wall, but no satisfactory explanation of this passage has been given.
 
4 - 301 DUAS DOMOS, AD.
The name applied to the church of S. Susanna on the Quirinal, under which remains of a house of the third century A.D. have been found.
 
4 - 302 DUOS AMANTES, AD.
A locality mentioned in the life of S. Silvester, so that the name probably goes back to classical times. A church of S. Salvatore ad duos amantes occurs in various documents of the eleventh century, and may be identical with S. Salvatore de Camiliano to the west of the Saepta.
 
5 E.
5 - 1 ELAGABALUS, TEMPLUM.
A temple of the Syrian god, known officially as Sol Invictus Elagabalus, erected on the Palatine close to the imperial palace by the Emperor Elagabalus, into which he proposed to transfer all the principal cults of Rome. It was dedicated in 22survived the death of Elagabalus for some time, but was afterwards destroyed by fire, presumably before the date of the Notitia, in which the temple is not mentioned . V. Domaszewski, however, thinks that there would have been no more room on the Palatine  (cf. DIS PATER, AEDES). He also maintains that this suits the passage in the Vita S. Sebastiani, in which the martyr addresses the emperor' stans super gradus Heliogabali'-in which case the martyrdom took place in the circus Maximus.

For a coin showing this temple, and coins and a capital representing the stone that embodied the god, see Ann. de Numism. 
 
5 - 2 ELAGABALUS.
A temple of the Syrian god Elagabalus, built by the Emperor Elagabalus in some suburb of the city as a summer residence of the deity. Into this temple, which is described as very large and magnificent, the stone that represented the god was carried with great pomp and ceremony. Nothing further is known of the building, which has wrongly been placed on the Esquiline.
 
5 - 3 ELEPHAS HERBARIUS.
Mentioned in Reg. in Region VIII, and in mediaeval documents without the adjective. The name survived in that of the mediaeval church of S. Abbacyri et Archangeli ad Alafantum, and the district is mentioned in a bull of Anacletus II; cf. Jord. ii. 667. The monument probably stood a little east of the forum Holitorium, near the present church of S. Galla. It was probably a statue, but the meaning of herbarius is uncertain. It has been interpreted as 'tame', as referring to a resort of the herbarii meaning dealers in herbs, and (more probably) as indicating that the beast was represented eating grass, who cites as parallels.
 
5 - 4 EMPORIUM.
The landing place and market for the merchandise that was brought up the Tiber from Ostia. It is said to have been established by M. Aemilius Lepidus and L. Aemilius Paullus when curule aediles in 193 B.C., and was probably at first not much more than an open space with wharf and offices, for it was paved and enclosed by barriers by the censors of 174. It is not mentioned after this time, and as it lay between the river and the horrea Sulpicia, it became a part of the system of quays (portus) and warehouses (horrea) that extended along the left bank of the river for a kilometre south from the porta Trigemina.

Fragments of the wall and quay and of the steps and paved inclines which led down to the water to facilitate unloading have been found, and a few of the stone corbels, sometimes in the shape of lions' heads, which projected out from the quay and were pierced with holes for mooring rings. One or two chambers in opus reticulatum were found in 19and have been built into the embankment just above the Ponte Aventino. Farther back from the bank between the Vie Romolo Gessi and Beniamino Franklin, were ruins of a large rectangular structure of opus incertum, dating probably from the period before Sulla, which are often regarded as part of the Emporium, or sometimes (wrongly) as belonging to the PORTICUS AEMILIA (q.v.). They may be identical with the 'paries antiquus maior' mentioned as existing near the church of S. Petrus in Horrea in the eleventh century. After the construction of the great horrea, the Emporium was largely used for unloading marble. 
 
5 - 5 EPICTETENSES.
A name found in one inscription, which seems to mean those who lived in a vicus Epicteti, in Region XIV.
 
5 - 6 EQUUS CAESARIS.
The equestrian statue of Julius Caesar, mounted on his famous horse with fore feet like those of a man, which the dictator set up in front of the temple of Venus Genetrix in the forum Iulium. It is said that the original statue was one of Alexander and Bucephalus, the work of Lysippus, and that Caesar had substituted his own head for that of Alexander. If this is so, he must have altered the feet of the horse also.
 
5 - 7 EQUUS CONSTANTII.
An equestrian statue of Constantius in the northern part of the later Comitium, close to the arch of Septimius Severus. The marble pedestal, bearing a dedicatory inscription was set up by Neratius Cerialis, praefectus urbi in 352-353 A.D. It has been replaced on its brick base.
 
5 - 8 EQUUS DOMITIANI.
A bronze equestrian statue of Domitian erected in the forum in 91 A.D. in honour of his campaign in Germany. Statius devotes one poem to a description and celebration of this statue. It stood on the concrete base discovered in 1903 near the centre of the forum. This base is 11.80 metres long and 5.90 wide, and its top is 1.50 metres below the level of the latest pavement. The mass cuts into the main cuniculus and one of the cross-passages, and dates from the Flavian period. In the top of the base are set three square blocks of travertine, in which are holes about 0.44 metre square and 0.deep, which seem well adapted to hold supports of some kind. In the east end of the base was a hollow block of travertine (over which was placed another block as a lid), containing clay jars, in which were sand, stone, pitch, and fragments of tortoise shell, and in one of them a small piece of quartz with a bit of gold attached, but nothing suggestive of funeral gifts. There seems to be little doubt that, as Hulsen thinks, the workmen who sunk the foundations for the statue came on a prehistoric tomb (for the pottery is identical with that of the necropolis near the temple of Antoninus and Faustina) and that, inasmuch as its true nature was unknown, the pottery was regarded as highly venerable and enclosed in the base of the statue. So also Von Duhn, Italische Graberkunde i. 417; and cf. BUSTA GALLICA, DOLIOLA.

The statue itself was undoubtedly destroyed in consequence of the damnatio decreed by the senate after the death of Domitian, and its base concealed under the pavement of the forum. Over part of it Trajan afterwards erected a building. It has been thought that the so-called Trajanic reliefs (generally, and rightly, attributed to the Rostra) are really Flavian, and once decorated the enclosure wall round this statue.
 
5 - 9 EQUUS SEVERI.
A bronze equestrian statue of Severus in the forum, erected by the emperor himself to commemorate a dream. It is probably represented on several coins. No trace of this statue has been found, and its position is unknown.
 
5 - 10 EQUUS TIRIDATIS REGIS ARMENIORUM.
Mentioned only in the Regionary Catalogue in Region VII. Equos is the reading of the Curiosum, and equum of the Notitia. The latter is probably correct, and this equestrian statue may have been erected by Nero on the occasion of the memorable visit of Tiridates to Rome.
 
5 - 11 EQUUS TRAIANI.
see FORUM TRAIANI
 
5 - 12 EQUUS TREMULI.
An equestrian statue of Q. Marcius Tremulus, consul in 306 B.C., erected in front of the temple of Castor and Pollux to commemorate his victory over the Hernici. It was still standing in Cicero's day, but had disappeared before the time of Pliny. A concrete base in front of the temple of Divus Iulius has been believed to be that of this statue, but it certainly belongs to the Augustan period. To suppose either that so comparatively unimportant a monument would have been restored and placed in front of the new temple, or that, having been restored, it would so soon have disappeared, is almost impossible; and it is far more natural to attribute it to a statue of Caesar himself. See STATUA (LORICATA) DIVI IULII.
 
5 - 13 ESQUILIAE.
(A) the earlier general name for the MONS OPPIUS and MONS CISPIUS (q.v.), the two projections from the high ground on the east of the city afterwards known as the mons Esquilinus. Esquiliae is in form a place-name and was so treated grammatically. It is derived from ex-colo, and meant ' an outside settlement,' that is, the settlement on the Oppius and Cispius when that district was still beyond the limits of the Palatine city. Von Duhn's explanation of Esquiliae as ' Nicht-Wohngebiet,' i.e. necropolis, is tempting. He points out that it was devoted to this use as early as the time of the Kings, though he also notes that very few cremation tombs have actually been found--so far as we can gather from the insufficient reports that are the only sources of our information. In point of time its use is of course later than that of the necropolis of the forum, belonging as it does to the period after the enlargement of the Septimontium into the city of the four regions. Regio Esquilina was the second in the City of the Four Regions, and comprised the Oppius, Cispius, Subura and Argiletum. Its eastern limit must have been the ancient necropolis which began near the present S. Martino ai Monti (KH i.). After the Servian wall was built, the eastern limit of the region probably coincided with the wall, and the adjacent district beyond was organised as the PAGUS MONTANUS (q.v.). At the end of the republic the PUTICULI (q.v.) were ultra Esquilias. This region was well wooded at first, as is shown by the several luci (Fagutalis, Mefitis, Esquilinus, Lucinae) within its limits.

Esquiliae was the term in general use in the earlier period, at least in literature. Mons Esquilinus is found only once in Cicero and for the first time, and is not used at all by Livy, Tacitus, Pliny, Suetonius or Martial, but it was adopted by Greek writers, and became common after the first century.

(B) the name of the fifth region of Augustus' city, which was entirely outside the line of the Servian wall, and therefore contained no part of the original Esquiliae. Of the republican Esquiliae, the Oppius fell in the third and the Cispius in the fourth region. It is not possible to determine the limits of this region in the Augustan period with certainty at all points, but in the fourth century its western boundary coincided with the Servian agger and wall from the porta Viminalis to a point just south of the temple of Isis, and from there appears to have run straight to the porta Asinaria. Thence it followed the Aurelian wall to the castra Praetoria, except between the amphitheatrum Castrense and the aqua Claudia, where it curved out some 200 metres. Its northern boundary was the street between the porta Viminalis and the gate in the Aurelian wall south of the castra Praetoria. Of this area, most of that part north of the via Tiburtina vetus was probably not included in Region V until the time of Vespasian. A large section of the region was occupied by parks, horti (q.v.), and there were numerous distributing stations of the seven aqueducts that entered the city at the porta Praenestina. For this reason the Esquiliae are called aquosae.
 
5 - 14 EURIPUS.
known only from one inscription, and of uncertain location, but apparently near the Tiber.
 
5 - 15 EURIPUS IN CIRCO MAXIMO.
A water channel, three metres wide, that Caesar built around the arena of the circus Maximus, just inside the lowest tier of seats, to protect the spectators from the wild beasts. It was filled in by Nero to provide more space for seats. The name was taken from the channel between Euboea and the mainland at Chalcis.
 
5 - 16 EURIPUS TIIERMARUM AGRIPPAE.
A water channel through which water from the aqua Virgo appears to have flowed into the STAGNUM (q.v.) of the thermae. 
 
5 - 17 EVANDER, ARA.
An altar of Evander on the slope of the Aventine not far from the porta Trigemina. It was believed to be of very ancient origin, and was still standing in the time of Augustus.
 
5 - 18 EXCUBITORIA VIGILUM.
see COHORTIUM VIGILUM STATIONES.
 
6 F.
6 - 1 FAGUTAL.
The early name of the western part of that spur from the Esquiline plateau, to all of which the name MONS OPPIUS (q.v.) was afterwards usually applied. This is the part of the hill now dominated by S. Pietro in Vincoli, where the arx of the earliest settlement was probably situated. Fagutal is a substantive form from fagutalis, and was given to this hill because of the beech trees, the lucus Fagutalis, that covered it, some of which were standing at the end of the republic. Fagutal seems also to have been used of the shrine of Jupiter itself. The exact relation of Oppius and Fagutal is not clear, for while there is a distinct differentiation between the two in the description of the Septimontium. this separation is not so definite in the list of the Argei. Probably Fagutal came to be regarded merely as one part of the Oppius, and was perhaps largely displaced in popular usage by CARINAE (q.v.), which seems originally to have designated only the extreme south-west edge of the hill. See VICUS IOVIS FAGUTALIS.
 
6 - 2 FAUNUS, AEDES.
So far as is known the only temple of Faunus in Rome, situated at the north end of the island in the Tiber. It was vowed in 196 B.C. by the aediles Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus and C. Scribonius Curio, who built it out of fines collected from three pecuarii who had been convicted of cheating. Two years later it was dedicated by Domitius on the Ides of February. Vitruvius cites it as an example of a prostyle temple. It was built on the island probably because of the non-urban character of the god. There are no references to it later than those of the calendar, and no traces have been found.
 
6 - 3 FAUSTA FELICITAS.
A shrine on the Capitol, dedicated to Felicitas, and mentioned in the calendars in connection with Genius Publicus and Venus Victrix in such a way that it is uncertain whether there were separate shrines for the three divinities, or one for the three together. It is probable that the same shrine is referred to in the Fasti Antiates under date of 1st July.
 
6 - 4 FAUSTINAE AEDICULA.
The name frequently, but without sufficient reason, given to a small shrine, of which the remains are visible between the temples of Vespasian and Concord at the foot of the Capitoline. It was built at the same time as the temple of VESPASIAN (q.v.), for its left wall rests on the foundations of the temple, which were made to project for that purpose. The building was 4.01 metres wide and 2.50 deep, and the marks of its vaulted roof are visible on the front wall of the Tabularium. The purpose of the structure is unknown, but in it was found a marble base dedicated to Faustina by the viatores quaestorii ab aerario Saturni, who may have used it for a schola
 
6 - 5 FEBRIS, TEMPLUM.
According to Valerius Maximus there were three temples of Febris in Rome: ( in area MARIANORUM MONUMENTORUM (q.v.), of which the site is uncertain and nothing further is known.

( at the highest point of the vicus Longus on the Quirinal.

( on the Palatine. Besides templum, this shrine was called aedes, fanum, and Cicero mentions the 'ara vetusta in Palatio Febris,' and testifies to the antiquity of the cult. There is no doubt that these passages all refer to the temple on the Palatine, although some have no indication of site, but nothing more is known of the history of the structure or of its exact location.
 
6 - 6 FECUNDITAS, TEMPLUM.
A temple voted by the senate in 63 A.D. on the occasion of the birth of the daughter of Nero and Poppaea. It is possible that there is a reference to offerings made to Fecunditas at this time in the Acta of the Arval Brethren. There is no certainty whatever that this temple was ever built, although this is frequently assumed, in fact the contrary is far more probable, as the child died within four months.
 
6 - 7 FELICITAS (SACELLUM, ARA?)
see THEATRUM POMPEI and GENIUS POPULI ROMANI.
 
6 - 8 FELICITAS.
a temple planned by Caesar in 44 B.C., just before his assassination, and built by M. Aemilius Lepidus on part of the site previously occupied by the CURIA HOSTILIA (q.v.) of Faustus Sulla. Nothing whatever is known of the later history of this temple.
 
6 - 9 FELICITAS, AEDES.
A temple erected by L. Licinius Lucullus from booty taken during his campaign in Spain in 150-151 B.C., and dedicated by him after 146. For the embellishment of this temple L. Mummius presented Lucullus with works of art that he had brought from Greece, and certain statues of the Muses by Praxiteles from Thespiae which stood in front of the temple. It was in front of this temple that Caesar broke the axle of his chariot when celebrating his triumph in 46 B.C., and it therefore lay on the line of the triumphal procession. In describing this accident Suetonius says, ' Velabrum praetervehens,' but we know no other details as to its site. It was burned early in the reign of Claudius and apparently not rebuilt. Pais wrongly maintains that it stood close to the first-mentioned temple.
 
6 - 10 FELICITAS IN CAPITOLIO.
The mention in Fast. Ant. may refer to an otherwise unknown shrine on the Capitol. See GENIUS POPULI ROMANI.
 
6 - 11 FERONIA, LUCUS IN CAMPO MARTIO.
a grove of the goddess Feronia, known from one inscription that was found near the porta Salaria. In or beside this grove there must have been a temple of the goddess, whose festival occurred on 13th Nov. Its exact site and history are unknown.
 
6 - 12 FICUS NAVIA.
A fig tree in the Comitium, near the steps of the curia and the statue of Attus Navius. It was said to have been the tree beneath which the wolf suckled the twins, Romulus and Remus, and to have been miraculously transported to the Comitium by the power of the augur Navius. It was surrounded by a bronze grating. It was regarded as a symbol of Rome's power, and any sign of withering as an unfavourable omen which must be averted by the priests. This happened in 58 A.D., according to Tacitus (loc. cit.), who calls the tree ruminalis arbor (see below), and says that it had sheltered the twins 840 years before. The probable explanation of this tree on the Comitium is, that it had grown in a spot which had been struck by lightning and therefore was left unpaved and sacred; and, as this spot was close to the statue of Navius, the legend had developed that the augur had brought it over from the Lupercal.
 
6 - 13 FICUS.

OLEA.

VITIS

A fig tree, olive tree and vine, that stood in the middle of the forum, near the lacus Curtius in the time of Pliny. The fig tree is represented on the reliefs, and with the vine and olive may perhaps have grown in an open space about 4 metres square (where the STATUA MARSYAE (q.v.) also stood), between the inscription of Naevius and the reliefs, where there are no traces of pavement. See ROSTRA.
 
6 - 14 FICUS RUMINALIS.
the fig tree that stood close to the Lupercal, where Romulus and Remus were washed ashore and suckled by the she-wolf. Tradition said (see above) that this tree was removed by the augur Attus Navius and thenceforth stood on the Comitium. Ovid states that only vestigia remained on the original spot in his day, but Livy, in telling the story of the twins, writes (i. :  ubi nunc ficus Ruminalis est. Elsewhere he says that the Ogulnii, aediles in 296 B.C., erected a monument that represented the twins and wolf, ad ficum ruminalem. It is possible that the site continued to be called ficus Ruminalis, after the tree itself had disappeared. Ruminalis, according to one view, is to be connected with Ruma, the Etruscan gentile name from which Rome and Romulus are derived. The Romans themselves, however, derived it from ruma, rumis, breast (Fest. loc. cit.; cf. Rumina, the goddess of nursing, and Varro, RR ii. ii. 5: mammaenim  rumis sive ruminare); and Ilerbig has put forward the view that Roma is the Latinised form, and as a proper name means 'large-breasted,' i.e. strong or powerful.
 
6 - 15 FIDES, AEDES.
A temple of Fides, afterwards known as Fides Publica or Fides Publica populi Romani (diplomata), on the Capitol. The establishment of the cult and the erection of a shrine is ascribed to Numa, probably on the site of the later temple. This was dedicated--and presumably built-by A. Atilius Calatinus in 254 or 250 B.C., and restored and re-dedicated by M. Aemilius Scaurus in 1B.C.. The day of dedication was 1st October. This temple was in Capitolio, and vicina Iovis optimi maximi, and probably inside the area Capitolina, at its south-east corner near the porta Pandana, rather than outside. It was used for meetings of the senate, and on its walls were fastened tablets on which international agreements were probably inscribed. In 43 B.C. a great storm tore off some of these tablets. The diplomata of honorably discharged soldiers were also fastened up here. The temple contained a painting by Apelles of an old man teaching a youth to play the lyre, but nothing is known of its appearance, construction or later history.
 
6 - 16 FIDES, TEMPLUM.
A temple of Fides on the Palatine, which, according to Agathocles, as quoted by Festus (269), was dedicated by Rhome, the daughter of Ascanius, who came to Italy with Aeneas. There is no other mention of the temple, and its existence is very doubtful.
 
6 - 17 FIGLINAE.
A district on the Esquiline hill, just inside the Servian wall, so named from its potteries. 
 
6 - 18 FLORA, AEDES.
A temple of Flora, built by the aediles Lucius and Marcus Publicius, in 240 or 238 B.C.; restored by Augustus, in part at least, and dedicated by Tiberius in A.D.; and probably again restored in the fourth century by the younger Symniachus. It stood on the slope of the Aventine at the west end of the circus Maximus, probably on the CLIVUS PUBLICIUS (q.v.), which was built by the same aediles (AD TO(N)SORES).
 
6 - 19 FLORA, TEMPLUM.
A temple of Flora on the slope of the Quirinal, undoubtedly on the site previously occupied by an altar that was said to have been erected by Titus Titius to the Sabine Flora. Nothing is known of the date of erection of this temple, or of its history, except that it was standing in the fourth century. The site is not certain, but we are told that a clivus led up to the CAPITOLIUM VETUS (q.v.) from it, and that it was not far from the temple of Quirinus. It is claimed that two sites conform to the statement, one outside the Servian wall at the foot of the Quirinal, near the Piazza Barberini, and the other just below the Capitolium vetus, between it and the street ad Malum Punicum, the modern Via delle Quattro Fontane 
 
6 - 20 FONTUS, ARA.
An altar of the god Fontus or Fons on the Janiculum, near the burial place of Numa. Its exact site is, of course, unknown.
 
6 - 21 FONS APOLLINIS.
Mentioned only by Frontinus as peculiarly wholesome. Its site is unknown.
 
6 - 22 FONS CAMENARUM:
see CAMENAE.
 
6 - 23 FONS CATI.
see CATI FONS.
 
6 - 24 FONS, DELUBRUM
A shrine dedicated in 231 B.C. by Cn. Papirius Maso from the booty that he had taken in Corsica. Its site was probably just outside the porta Fontinalis in the extreme southern part of the campus Martius. A fragment of the calendar found on the Esquiline in 1894.
 
6 - 25 FONS IUTURNAE
see LACUS IUTURNAE.
 
6 - 26 FONS LOLLIANUS
A spring somewhere on the western slope of the Caelian, known only from an inscription.
 
6 - 27 FONS MUSCOSUS.
Mentioned only in Plutarch (de fort. Rom. 10:καλουμένη κρήνη). It may have been in the forum Boarium; see FORTUNA VIRGO.
 
6 - 28 FONS PAL . .
Perhaps to be completed as Palatinus, a spring known only from inscriptions and situated probably on the western slope of the Caelian.
 
6 - 29 FONS SCAURIANUS.
A spring known only from inscriptions, and probably on the Aventine near the present church of S. Prisca.
 
6 - 30 FORNIX AUGUSTI.
Probably an arch at the head of the pons Aemilius, remains of which and an inscription are reported to have been found in the fourteenth century. This inscription merely records a restoration by Augustus after B.C. In 1551 two other inscriptions to Gaius and Lucius Caesar were found near the temple of Fortuna Virilis, which may have belonged to the arch.

For an identification with the ARCUS STILLANS (q.v.) and for a theory that it was an arch of a branch aqueduct of the Aqua Claudia (not the Marcia, as is wrongly state;) across the river.
 
6 - 31 FORNIX CALPURNIUS.
A decorative arch, mentioned only once, that appears to have stood on the clivus Capitolinus, below the temple of Jupiter.
 
6 - 32 FORNIX FABIANUS (Fabiorum).
An honorary arch erected on or over the Sacra via at the east end of the forum by Q. Fabius Allobrogicus in 121 B.C. to commemorate his victory over the Allobroges. This was the first arch of the kind in or near the forum, and was restored by the grandson of the builder in 56 B.C. Among the fragments discovered in 1540-46, in 1882, and later, are the nine travertine voussoirs and the archivolt, which have hitherto been attributed to it.  It was therefore believed that the arch was single, 3.945 metres in diameter, and built of tufa and peperino with travertine facings. Three inscriptions were also found, to L. Aemilius Paullus, the elder Africanus, and Fabius, who restored the arch, but these survive only in copies, and as the original size of the letters is not known, it is impossible to decide whether they belong to statues placed on top of the arch, or lower down on the structure. For further discussion.

The remains of the arch have recently been identified by Van Deman with some scanty remains of tufa foundations on the north side of the temple of Julius Caesar. She follows Gatti in attributing to it a fragmentary inscription. The marble keystone and other fragments in the Tabularium, which are sometimes attributed to this arch, could only belong to a restoration, of which we have no record; and their provenance is doubtful.
 
6 - 33 FORNIX SCIPIONIS.
a decorative arch erected byScipio Africanus in 190 B.C. at the top of the clivus Capitolinus. In front of it were seven statues and two marble basins.
 
6 - 34 FORNIX STERTINII.
An arch erected in the circus Maximus by L. Stertinius in 196 B.C., from spoils brought from Spain, at the same time with two other similar arches in the forum Boarium. These arches were surmounted by gilded statues.
 
6 - 35 FORNICES STERTINII.
Two arches erected by L. Stertinius in 196 B.C. in the forum Boarium, in front of the temples of Fortuna and Mater Matuta, on which were gilded statues.
 
6 - 36 FORS FORTUNA, FANUM.
A temple of Fors Fortuna on the bank of the Tiber, outside the city, ascribed to Servius Tullius, who is evidently referring to the same temple, although he attributes its erection to Ancus Marcius. That this temple was on the right bank of the Tiber is shown with reasonable certainty by the calendars, which, however, mention two such temples, one at the first, and the other at the sixth, milestone on the via Portuensis, the latter close to the grove of the Arval Brethren. Both had the same festival day, 24th June.

In 293 B.C. Sp. Carvilius let the contract for a temple of Fors Fortuna near that of Servius. This was of course on the right bank of the river, but Carvilius' temple is mentioned nowhere else by name, nor is the day of its dedication known. It cannot be one of the two temples of the calendars, for they were five miles apart (vid. sup.), and there must, there- fore, have been three in existence in the time of Livy, to any one of which his notice of a prodigium in 2 B.C. may refer.

Finally in A.D. Tiberius dedicated another temple to this goddess. As the Fasti Esquilini at any rate antedate A.D., and as the day of dedication was near the end of the year, not 24th June, Tiberius' temple cannot be identified with either of the two temples of the calendars. If our sources are so far correct, this made the fourth temple of this goddess in Trastevere.

There are four later references to a temple of Fors Fortuna on the right bank of the Tiber:

( plainly implies that Plutarch believed that the temple in the gardens of Caesar was built after Caesar's death, or at least after he had achieved success; and (I) is consistent with this view. Therefore, if we are to attach any weight to Plutarch's statements in this matter, they must refer to the temple erected by Tiberius. ( might refer to any one of the four; and ( to any but that at the sixth milestone from the city.

There remains to be considered Ovid's description of the festival of 24th June. Because of the plurals, munera regis (776) and propinqua templa (78, this passage is interpreted by some as referring to two temples of Fors Fortuna, that is, the two mentioned in the calendars, at the first and sixth milestones, with one of which the temple of Carvilius either is (Mommsen, Wissowa, Peter, Gatti), or is not (Hilsen, Otto) identified. Munera regis, however, has no force in this connection, and lines 781 and 785 seem to refer distinctly to only one temple. If line 784 (propinqua templa) be interpreted in the ordinary way, Ovid must allude to two temples at least, and as two five miles apart can hardly be called propinqua, we must suppose that he has in mind that at the first milestone, the old foundation of Servius, and that built by Carvilius near it, which the poet erroneously regards as Servian. In this case also we must assume three temples in Ovid's time, that at the sixth milestone, of which nothing remains at present; one at the first, presumably that generally regarded as Servian, to which Varro and Dionysius refer, and Plutarch in de Fort. Rom. 5; and that erected by Carvilius. Both of these last two were close to the gardens of Caesar, and might have been within their limits, while that of Tiberius is distinctly said to have been in the gardens. This fact may have caused confusion in later writers, and Plutarch's topographical statements are frequently unreliable. The theory that Carvilius' temple may have been replaced by that of Tiberius is not supported by the language of Tacitus. There seems, therefore, to be no escape from assuming the existence of three temples near the first milestone and the gardens of Caesar, unless there is error in the sources.

One at least of these temples was in existence in the fourth century, and in this neighbourhood many small votive offerings in bronze have been found. The ruins of a concrete podium faced with peperino, with architectural fragments, which were found in 186may perhaps belong to the temple of Servius. For the discussion of these temples, and further literature, see HJ.
 
6 - 37 FORTUNA.
A temple dedicated by Trajan, to which offerings were brought on 1st January. Under this name all the special manifestations of Fortuna seem to have been comprised.
 
6 - 38 FORTUNA, AEDES.
a temple of Fortuna in the forum Boarium ascribed by tradition to Servius Tullius. It was burned in 2B.C. and restored by a special commission at the same time as the temple of MATER MATUTA (q.v.). The day of dedication was the same. It contained an archaic gilded wooden statue, which was not injured when the temple was burned. This statue was draped with two togas, variously called undulatae, praetextae, and regia undulata, so that its identity was in dispute. Some believed it to be a statue of Servius, others that of the goddess (for the later history of this statue, see FORTUNA SEIANI, and cf. PUDICITIA PATRICIA).

The temple stood inside the porta Carmentalis, and has sometimes been identified with the temple which has been converted into the church of S. Maria Egiziaca (for a complete description of which, see MATER MATUTA). If this is the case, which seems far from certain, the temple must have been entirely restored about the middle of the first century B.C., to which period the construction seems to point.
 
6 - 39 FORTUNA, AEDES.
see LACUS ARETIS.
 
6 - 40 FORTUNA.
A shrine mentioned only by Plutarch among those attributed to Servius Tullius. It has been suggested that the Latin equivalent of ',᾿Αποτρόπαιος is Averrunca.
 
6 - 41 FORTUNA BREVIS.
A temple ascribed by Plutarch to Servius, and otherwise unknown; then follow varying explanations of this epithet.
 
6 - 42 FORTUNA DUBIA.
see VICUS FORTUNAE DUBIAE.
 
6 - 43 FORTUNA EQUESTRIS, AEDES.
A temple of Fortuna in her relation to the equites, vowed in 180 B.C. by Q. Fulvius Flaccus during his campaign in Spain, and dedicated in 173, on 13th August. For the decoration of this temple Fulvius took some of the marble tiles from the temple of Juno Lacinia near Croton, but was ordered by the senate to restore them. It is referred to under the date of 92 B.C., but it must have been destroyed before 22 A.D. when there was no temple of Fortuna equestris in Rome. This temple was near the theatre of Pompey and is cited by Vitruvius as an example of a systylos, in which the intercolumnar space is equal to twice the diameter of the columns. 
 
6 - 44 FORTUNA.
A shrine ascribed to Servius Tullius by Plutarch, who calls it ἱερόν  and βωμός. It was on the VICUS LONGUS on the Quirinal, and seems to have represented the combination of Fortuna and Spes that is so commonly found on coins. The Latin equivalent of εὐέλπις is not known, nor anything whatever of the history of the structure.
 
6 - 45
 
 
6 - 46 FORTUNA DUBIA.
see VICUS FORTUNAE DUBIAE.
 
6 - 47
 
 
6 - 48
 
 
6 - 49 FORTUNA HUIUSCE DIEI, AEDES.
A temple vowed by Q. Lutatius Catulus on the day of the battle of Vercellae, 30th June, 101 B.C., and dedicated by him on an anniversary of the battle. It was in the campus Martius, but the exact site is unknown. This Fortuna is clearly the deity to whom the happy issue of each day is owing. Certain statues by Pythagoras of Samos stood ad aedem huiusce diei in Pliny's time, but whether this temple is meant or that on the Palatine is uncertain. In the sixth century there was a stone replica of the Palladium which Diomede had brought from Troy to Italy, and it is generally assumed that this temple is referred to, although without much reason.

Paribeni proposes to interpret Fortune Camcesi on the plinth of a statuette of Fortuna as an error for Campesi and to refer it to this temple.
 
6 - 50 FORTUNA HUIUSCE DIEI.
A shrine of some sort dedicated to this goddess on the Palatine, as is shown by the existence of a VICUS HUIUSCE DIEI (q.v.). The date of its erection is not stated, but it was probably this temple in which L. Aemilius Paullus and (later) Q. Lutatius Catulus set up statues by Phidias. Possibly Aemilius built the temple. Nothing is known of its later history
 
6 - 51 FORTUNA MALA, ARA.
An ancient altar dedicated to Fortuna mala somewhere on the Esquiline
 
6 - 52 FORTUNAE (TRES), AEDES.
Three temples of Fortuna on the Quirinal, just inside the porta Collina, which gave their name to the district.  The principal one of these three seems to have been that of the Praenestine goddess who was known officially at Rome as Fortuna publica populi Romani Quiritium primigenia. This temple was vowed in 204 B.C. by the consul P. Sempronius Sophus at the beginning of the battle with Hannibal at Croton, and dedicated in 194 by Q. Marcius Ralla. The day of dedication was 25th May, and it is probably this temple in which prodigies were observed in 169 B.C..

The second of these temples was dedicated to Fortuna publica citerior -that is, nearer the city than the others-and its festival day was 5th April, but nothing is known of its history. One of these two temples is probably referred to by Cassius Dio under date of 47 B.C. as Τύχη δημοσία and is being close to, if not within, the gardens of Caesar that were near the porta Collina.

The third of these temples was one that seems to be mentioned only twice, of which the festival day was 13th November.

One of these three is mentioned by Vitruvius (see above) as an example of a temple in antis; and the podium and foundations of one of the other two were probably discovered at the corner of the via Flavia and the via Servio Tullio (LF 10; LR 42. Other traces have also been found in the neighbourhood.
 
6 - 53 FORTUNA MAMMOSA.
A shrine or altar in Region XII (Not.), evidently on the VICUS FORTUNAE MAMMIOSAE (q.v.), probably between the porta Capena and the baths of Caracalla. This manifestation of the goddess may have borne some resemblance to the Ephesian Diana.
 
6 - 54 FORTUNA, TEMPLUM NOVUM.
A temple in Region VII (Not., Cur. om.), but otherwise unknown.
 
6 - 55 FORTUNA OBSEQUENS.
A shrine somewhere in Region I (cf. VICUS FORTUNAE OBSEQUENTIS), ascribed to Servius Tullius by Plutarch.
 
6 - 56 FORTUNA PRIMIGENIA.
A temple of Fortuna, the first-born daughter of Jupiter, on the Capitol, ascribed by tradition to Servius Tullius
 
6 - 57 FORTUNA PRIVATA.
A temple of Fortuna in relation to the individual as distinguished from FORTUNA PUBLICA (q.v.). It was on the Palatine, and was ascribed by tradition to Servius Tullius 
 
6 - 58 FORTUNA REDUX, TEMPLUM.
A temple built by Domitian in the campus Martius after his triumphal entry into Rome in 93 A.D. after the war in Germany. It may be represented on a coin of 174 A.D. and on a relief of the same period on the arch of Constantine, and if so, it was probably near the present Piazza di Venezia; for an erroneous theory that this temple was the ara Fortunae reducis of Augustus. See ARCUS DOMITIANI (.
 
6 - 59 FORTUNA REDUX, ARA.
An altar erected by the senate in B.C. near the porta Capena, in honour of the return of Augustus from the east, when he entered the city, 12th October. At this altar the Augustalia were celebrated by pontiffs and Vestals. The altar itself was dedicated on 15th December and is represented on several coins. An aedituus Fortunae reducis can hardly have belonged to this altar.
 
6 - 60 FORTUNA RESPICIENS.
A temple of Fortuna on the Esquiline, ascribed by tradition to Servius Tullius. Nothing more is known of this temple and its site is uncertain
 
6 - 61 FORTUNA RESPICIENS.
A shrine of some sort on the Palatine which evidently gave its name to the vicus Fortunae Respicientis of the Capitoline Base, but is otherwise unknown.
 
6 - 62 FORTUNA RESTITUTRIX, ARA.
See CASTRA PRAETORIA.
 
6 - 63 FORTUNA SEIANI, AEDES.
A temple of Fortuna built by Nero within the precincts of the domus Aurea. Cassius Dio states that Sejanus had in his own house the statue of Fortuna set up by Servius Tullius, probably in the temple of FORTUNA in the FORUM BOARIUM (q.v.), that was covered with two togas, and Nero may have erected this temple to house this statue, but this is mere conjecture.
 
6 - 64 FORTUNA STATA.
A shrine of some sort known only from an inscription that records its dedication in 1A.D. by the magistri of the VICUS SANDALIARIUS (q.v.) in Region IV.
 
6 - 65 FORTUNA TULLIANA.
Probably one of the several temples of Fortuna ascribed by tradition to Servius Tullius, which for some reason was marked out by the epithet Tulliana. It is known only from one inscription found near the porta Flaminia, and no identification is more than conjectural, although that with Fors Fortuna seems not unlikely.
 
6 - 66 FORTUNA VIRGO.
A temple of Τύχη παρθένοςsaid to have been built by Servius Tullius. It may be referred to by Varro, and it is possible that it may be the ancient temple of Fortuna in the forum Boarium.
 
6 - 67 FORTUNA VIRILIS.
A temple of Τύχη ἄρρην, ascribed to Servius Tullius.. The site of the temple is unknown, and its actual existence has been called in question. The name has been very generally (but wrongly) applied to the temple of MATER MATUTA.
 
6 - 68 FORTUNA VISCATA.
A temple of Τύχη, ascribed to Servius Tullius. Its site is uncertain, but it may have been on the Palatine (HJ 46). For discussion of the epithet, see CR.
 
6 - 69 FORTUNIUM.
see PORTUNIUM.
 
6 - 70 FORUM AHENOBARBI.
Mentioned only in the list of fora in Appendix I of the Regionary Catalogue, and entirely unknown.
 
6 - 71 FORUM APRONIANI.
Mentioned only in the Codex Theodosianus, and possibly in Pol. Silv. 545, where the text reads Apurani, with no indication of location; in the former it occurs under date 400 A.D.
 
6 - 72 FORUM AUGUSTUM.
The second of the imperial fora, adjoining the FORUM IULIUM (q.v.), built by Augustus to provide additional room for the courts, and for other needs of the increasing population. The site was purchased by Augustus from its owners with the proceeds of the spoils of war, but he did not succeed in acquiring enough land to carry out his original plan. Within the forum was the temple of Mars Ultor, inscription, delubrum Suet. Cass. Dio, vowed by Octavianus at the battle of Philippi pro ultione paterna, which formed the essential element of the forum as the temple of Venus Genetrix did that of the forum Iulium. The work was greatly delayed, but that on the forum was hurried at last and this was opened before the temple was finished, although its actual dedication is said to have taken place on Ist August, 2 B.C., at the same time as that of the temple. Because of.the temple of Mars, this forum was sometimes called forum Martis, and this name is preserved in that of the via Marforio.

In A.D. Tiberius erected two arches, one on each side of the temple, in honour of the victories of Drusus and Germanicus in Germany. Pliny regarded this forum with the temple of Peace and the basilica Aemilia, as the three most beautiful buildings in the world, and says that the timber used in its construction was cut in the Raetian Alps in the dog days, considered to be the best time. In fact, wooden dowels (see below) were found in the sixteenth century so well preserved that they could be used again. As might be expected, many works of art were collected in the forum, including a quadriga dedicated by the senate to Augustus; and in the temple, which was as magnificent as the rest of the structure. The forum was restored by Hadrian; the temple incidentally in two inscriptions and elsewhere, and perhaps in the Feriale Cumanum under date of 12th May. How long the forum was used for the courts is not known. Claudius and Trajan sat in judgment here, but the building of Trajan's forum probably diminished the importance of all the others. Once at least Augustus celebrated the festival of Mars in his forum on account of an inundation of the Tiber, and the Arval Brethren sacrificed here to Mars Ultor, Salus and the genius of the princeps.

Augustus placed in the forum bronze statues of all the Roman triumphatores from Aeneas down with the name and cursus honorum of each general engraved on the plinth and his res gestae on a marble slab fixed to the wall below. Of these inscriptions a considerable number have been recovered. Later, statues of other persons, of varying degrees of distinction, were set up, and honorary inscriptions.

In the temple certain formalities were regularly observed, i.e. the assumption of the toga virilis by young men, the formal leave-taking of provincial governors when setting out for their posts, and their reception when returning with signs of victory which were deposited here, together with other less important functions. It served as a place of safe deposit until some thief stole the helmet of Mars, and was the scene of the famous banquets of the Salii. It is usually supposed that the standards recovered from the Parthians were kept in this temple after its completion, being removed thither from the temple of Mars Ultor on the Capitol.

The forum was rectangular in shape, about 125 metres long and 90 wide, and joined the forum Iulium on the north-east, its longest axis being perpendicular to that of the latter. The regularity of this rectangle was broken by two large semi-circular apses or exedrae on the south-east and north-west sides, and also at the north-east end, where Augustus had evidently not been able to get all the land he desired (see above). Exactly in the middle of the north-east half of the forum stood the temple, with its end abutting against the enclosure wall. The forum was surrounded by an enormous wall, which served the double purpose of protecting it against fire and shutting off the view of the squalid quarters of the city in the immediate neighbourhood. A considerable part of this wall at the north-east end, and of both exedrae, has been preserved. It was originally nearly 36 metres high, and was built of large blocks of peperino in alternate courses of headers and stretchers, with wooden dowels (see above), but no mortar. On the outside two courses of travertine divided it into three sections. Travertine is also used at other points of stress. In the part of the wall now standing is one of the original arched gateways, Arco dei Pantani, through which the modern Via Bonella passes, 6 metres above the ancient level. The inner surface of the wall was covered with marble and stucco. Whether a colonnade and porticus surrounded the south part of the forum -within the wall is uncertain.

Each apse was separated from the forum area by a line of four pilasters and six fluted columns of cipollino, 9.50 metres high, which supported an entablature of white marble. In the curved wall of the apse were two rows of rectangular niches, the lower about 2.50 metres and the upper about 15, from the pavement. The wide wall-space (about 8.50 metres) between these two rows of niches, which appears to have been bare of ornament other than the lining, was probably masked by the entablature. About 5 metres above the upper row of niches ran a cornice, and above this the wall rose again for a considerable height. In each apse in the lower row were fourteen niches, not counting the large one in the middle, and four between each apse and the temple, making thirty-six in all. Whether there were more in the other portion of the wall is not known. In the lower niches were the statues of the triumphatores, and in the upper probably trophies. Between the niches were marble pilasters.

The temple was octostyle, and peripteral except at the north-east end, where it joined the forum wall. Three of the columns with the architrave are still standing. They are of white marble, fluted, 15.30 metres high and 1.76 in diameter, with Corinthian capitals. It was thought that they belonged to the restoration by Hadrian, and not to the structure of Augustus. This theory has, however, now been abandoned by Huulsen and Fiechter, for we have neither record nor traces of any restoration. The cella wall is of peperino, lined with Greek marble. Owing to the width of the cella it was divided into a nave and two aisles by internal columns. The ceiling of the peristyle, between the cella wall and the columns, is coffered, with rosettes in the centre of each coffer. The concrete base of the steps is well preserved (though the steps are thought to have been relaid at a later date), and so is a portion of the podium, with its facing of marble slabs which shows signs of decoration with bronze reliefs. In the podium is a chamber which was cut in the Middle Ages to serve as a burial vault. A courtyard behind the north-west exedra, surrounded by an arcade, is interesting; and the north-west exedra itself has been entirely cleared. The work, which is still in progress, has not yet been fully described.
 
6 - 73 FORUM BOARIUM.
Was, as its name implies, the cattle-market of ancient Rome. It originally extended from the boundary of the Velabrum to the Tiber, and from the valley of the circus Maximus to the road leading from the pons Sublicius towards the Velabrum, but not as far north as the Servian wall. The first gladiatorial games were held here. See ARCUS SEPTIMII SEVERI.

In process of time this large open space was greatly encroached upon by buildings; but the name was still applied to the whole district. A bronze statue of a bull symbolised its purpose, and gave it its name. It was an important centre of traffic, and had been so from a remote period ; for the original route from the north and east came along the VICUS IUGARIUS or the VICUS TUSCUS (q.v.) on its way to the crossing of the Tiber at the pons Sublicius, and here intersected the road which ran from the campus Martius between the Capitol and the river, passing through the porta Carmentalis and the porta Flumentana, and on to the porta Trigemina. The road along the valley of the circus Maximus and the clivus Publicius descending from the Aventine also opened into this narrow level space between the hills and the river. Thus streets, in later days adorned with porticoes, radiated from the forum Boarium in all directions.

This crowded area was often devastated by fire. It seems to have lain for the most part within the eleventh region of Augustus, but to have also included a small portion of the eighth.

Two terminal stones, one of the period of Tiberius, the other of Claudius, show that the open space, which was public property, required protection from encroachment, and define the eastern boundary as running along the front of the TEMPLUM HERCULIS POMPEIANI (q.v.), which stood in front of the carceres of the circus Maximus. Of the temples situated in or near the forum Boarium the round temple of HERCULES INVICTUS (q.v.), with the ara Maxima close by it, was the most famous; there were also those of FORTUNA, HERCULES POMPEIANUS, MATER MATUTA, PORTUNUS, PUDICITIA PATRICIA.

Among other monuments were the two fornices erected by L. STERTINIUS (q.v.). The BUSTA GALLICA and DOLIOLA (q.v.) were probably primitive tombs, discovered (and misunderstood) in Roman times.
 
6 - 74 FORUM CAESARIS.
see FORUM IULIUM.
 
6 - 75 FORUM COQUINUM.
A name used once by Plautus, probably for the MACELLUM, where cooks waited to be hired
 
6 - 76 FORUM CUPPEDINIS.
The market where various delicacies were sold, between the Sacra via and the Argiletum. This, with other separate markets, was incorporated in the MACELLUM (q.v.) of Fulvius Nobilior in 179 B.C. In Symmachus it is called forum Cupedinarium.
 
6 - 77 FORUM ESQUILINUM.
An open area on the Esquiline, known from three inscriptions, one of which was found near the arch of Gallienus. This forum may perhaps be identified with that mentioned in two other inscriptions which record its restoration by Fl. Eurycles Epitynchianus, praef. urbi in 450 A.D. It is probably referred to in Appian, where the emended text reads. This was the scene of the conflict between Sulla and Marius in 88 B.C., and the description indicates a rather large area inside the Servian wall. ''he forum was therefore probably inside the porta Esquilina, on the north-east part of the Oppius, near the church of S. Martino ai Monti.
 
6 - 78 FORUM GALLORUM.
Mentioned only in Reg. app. I, and wholly unknown.
 
6 - 79 FORUM GRAECORUM.
see GRAECOSTADIUM.
 
6 - 80 FORUM HOLITORIUM.
The vegetable market of Rome, lying just outside the porta Carmentalis, in the ninth region of Augustus. Its south-east and north-east limits were marked by the Servian wall and the slope of the Capitoline hill, and it extended north-west across the present Piazza Montanara. On the west and south-west it probably extended originally to the river, but was afterwards diminished in area and practically enclosed by four temples, erected in foro holitorio, to PIETAS, IANUS, SPES and IUNO SOSPITA, and the theatre of Marcellus. The ruins of three of these temples exist beneath the church of S. Nicola in Carcere. By the second century B.C. the forum had been paved, and considerable fragments of its pavement of travertine have been found between S. Nicola in Carcere and a wall of peperino that crosses the Piazza Montanara, for a distance of about 90 metres. The details given as to this wall are insufficient; but it is noticeable that Lanciani omits it in LF, where he deals further with the porticus in vicolo della Bufala. This peperino wall perhaps marks the northern limit of the forum which, after it was surrounded by buildings, was about 125 by 40-50 metres in area. Its eastern corner, between the Capitoline and the Servian wall, was closed by a building, apparently a large porticus, that has been erroneously identified with the PORTICUS MINUCIA (q.v.). Its ruins were found in the Vicolo della Bufala. Other remains of this portico, at a slightly different orientation, are also to be seen in Piazza Montanara. The forum was connected with the vicus Iugarius and the forum Boarium by a street that ran south through the porta Carmentalis.
 
6 - 81 FORUM IULIUM.
The first of the so-called imperial fora, begun by Julius Caesar and designed, not for a market, but to provide a centre for business of other kinds. The plan of this forum had been conceived as early as 54 B.C., for in that year Cicero and Oppius were engaged in purchasing land for Caesar from private owners, and had already paid sixty million sesterces. More land was acquired afterwards, and the final cost is said to have been one hundred million sesterces, about 1,000,000 pounds, a sum perhaps exaggerated.

Work was probably begun in 5during Caesar's absence in Gaul. At the battle of Pharsalus Caesar vowed a temple to Venus Genetrix, the mythical ancestress of the Julian gens, and proceeded to build it in the centre of his forum, which thus became in effect a porticus surrounding the temple, a type followed in all the later fora. Temple and forum were dedicated on the last day of Caesar's great triumph, 26th September, 46 B.C., although the forum was not finished by Caesar, but by Octavianus after the dictator's death. In the forum Caesar allowed the erection of a statue of himself wearing a cuirass, and he himself dedicated a statue of his horse with ' humanis similes pedes priores', on which the dictator was mounted. In front of the temple stood a fountain surrounded by nymphs, called  APPIADES (q.v.). The forum was burned in 283 A.D. and restored by Diocletian. While the official designation was forum Iulium it appears regularly in our sources as forum Caesaris.

The temple of Venus was pycnostyle and built of solid marble. The statue of Venus Genetrix by Arcesilas, which Caesar set up, in foro Caesaris, was probably in the cella of the temple. Caesar also placed in the temple two paintings by Timomachus, Ajax and Medea; a gilded statue of Cleopatra; six dactyliothecae or collections of engraved gems; and a thorax adorned with British pearls. Later, Augustus is stated to have set up in the temple a statue of the deified Julius with a star above his head, although some scholars believe that this is a mistake for the temple of divus Iulius in the forum.

A colossal statue was erected near the temple in honour of Tiberius by fourteen cities of Asia Minor which had been relieved by him after the earthquakes of and 23 A.D., with personifications of them on its base: and a copy of this in relief was found at Puteoli.

A statue of Drusilla was erected in the temple after her death.

The forum Iulium was rectangular, about 1metres long and 30 wide, surrounded by a colonnade and wall. Its main axis ran north-west to south-east, corresponding with that of the curia Iulia which adjoined it at the south corner. On this axis the temple was built, facing south- east. All that remains of the forum is part of the enclosure wall of peperino on the south-west side, metres high and 3.70 thick, and some small vaulted chambers or tabernae opening into the corridor of the forum through a row of peperino arches with Anio tufa piers and travertine imposts. Of the temple of Venus, excavations in the sixteenth century brought to light portions of the foundations of peperino and travertine, and fragments of columns and frieze. At this time Palladio and Labacco drew a plan and reconstruction from what was then visible, representing a peripteral octostyle structure with very narrow intercolumniations. A piece of the architrave still exists in the Villa Medici. 
 
6 - 82 FORUM MARTIS.
see FORUM AUGUSTUM.
 
6 - 83 FORUM NERVAE.
The fourth of the imperial fora, built by Domitian, but dedicated by Nerva at the beginning of 97 A.D.. It occupied the space between the forum Augustum on the north-west and the forum Pacis on the south-east, and was in effeet a transformation of the intervening Argiletum with its crowded and unsightly buildings into a magnificent avenue which had the form of a very narrow forum. Its length was about 120 metres, its width about 40, and the walls of the fora already existing were extended so as to form a continuous enclosure. A part of the wall at the north-east end is still standing and corresponds in height and character with that of the forum Augustum which it adjoins, except that the size of the rectangular blocks of stone used in the construction has been considerably increased (from 59 cm. (2 Roman feet) to 78 cm.).

This forum was officially the forum Nervae, but as it was the main thoroughfare between the Subura and forum Romanum and the other imperial fora, it soon became known as the forum Transitorium, or, less frequently apparently, forum Pervium. In Reg. it is listed in Region IV as forum Transitorium, in Region VIII and the Appendix as forum Nervae, which indicates the common use of both names, and that the boundary between the two regions passed through the forum. Once it is called forum Palladium, because of the temple of Minerva, but whether this was in general use, or merely a conceit of the poet, is uncertain (cf. also MINERVA TEMPLUM). It appears to be spoken of as Caesareum forum in CIL vi..

After the pattern set in the other imperial fora, Domitian built in his forum a temple of Minerva, to whose cult he was especially devoted. It was dedicated by Nerva at the same time as the forum, and was a magnificent and imposing building. It is represented on the Marble Plan, and stood in the centre of the north-east end of the forum. From either side short walls extended across the fora of Augustus and Vespasian. It was of the Corinthian order, hexastyle prostyle, and its apse projected beyond the limits of the forum.

Besides this temple Domitian also erected one to IANUS QUADRIFRONS; and Alexander Severus set up colossal statues of all the emperors who had been deified, with bronze columns on which their res gestae were inscribed.

A considerable part of the temple of Minerva was standing in the sixteenth century, and of this we have views, but this was destroyed in 1606 by Paul V and the material used in building his fountain on the Janiculum. Modern houses stand on the podium.

The short ends of the forum were slightly curved, and that toward the forum Romanum was pierced by two monumental archways, while at the other end there was one, east of the temple. Of these arches the last-named was known as arcus Aurae, or arcus Aureus, in the Middle Ages, probably the same as S. Maria degli Angeli in Macello martyrum. See also PORTICUS ABSIDATA.

Within the enclosure wall was a colonnade of marble columns, entirely surrounding the forum. Two of these columns, with about II metres of the wall itself, are still standing at the east corner of the forum, in the Via della Croce Bianca. This ruin, one of the most beautiful in Rome, is called Le Colonnacce. The wall is peperino, lined with marble, the columns are 8.80 metres high without the capital, and I.08 in diameter at the base, and the intercolumniations 5.30 metres in width. Above the columns are a cornice and lofty attic which, instead of following the line of the columns, run along the wall itself in the intercolumnar spaces, and project and return round the columns, thus breaking the entablature into sections. The attic, which is 4.40 metres high, has a plinth and cornice, and in the space between the columns is a relief of Minerva, 2.65 metres high. The close parallelism between the architectural details of the forum Transitorium and those of Domitian's palace has already been noticed, and is further developed by Fiechter ap. It is probable that similar reliefs, either of Minerva or of some other goddess, stood in each intercolumnar space. The frieze is decorated with reliefs representing (a) Minerva among the nine Muses; (b) the punishment of Arachne, together with scenes of household life, such as spinning, weaving and dyeing-the arts which were especially under the protection of Minerva. According to Strong the scenes 'are perhaps to be interpreted as scenes of initiation into the mysteries of the goddess of wisdom'.
 
6 - 84 FORUM PACIS.
see TEMPLUM PACIS.
 
6 - 85 FORUM (PALATINUM?).
A forum supposed to be on the Palatine because of the discovery of an inscription preserved only in the Einsiedeln Itinerary, which records the dedication of a forum by Valentinianus, Valens and Gratianus, under the direction of Flavius Eupraxius, prefect of the city (for an identification of this forum with the paved space of the HORREA AGRIPPIANA (q.v.) cf. Richmond in Essays and Studies presented to William Ridgway, Cambridge.
 
6 - 86 FORUM PALLADIUM.
see FORUM NERVAE.
 
6 - 87 FORUM PERVIUM.
see FORUM NERVAE.
 
6 - 88 FORUM PETRONII MAXIMI
Assumed to have been constructed by Petronius Maximus, praef. urbi under Valentinian III and emperor 455 A.D., because of one dedicatory inscription, in which he is called conditor fori, and a possible reference in another. The first inscription was found a little north-east of S. Clemente, and therefore the forum is supposed to have been situated in that neighbourhood on the via Labicana.
 
6 - 89 FORUM PISCARIUM.
The fish-market north of the forum, between the Sacra via and the Argiletum. It was burned in 2B.C. and rebuilt the next year. In 179 it was incorporated in the general Macellum, built by Fulvius Nobilior in the same region. This forum is called piscatorium in Livy, and piscarium in Varro and Plautus.
 
6 - 90 FORUM PISTORUM.
Mentioned only in the Regionary Catalogue in Region XIII. It was probably near the horrea, at the southern end of the Aventine.
 
6 - 91 FORUM (ROMANUM S. MAGNUM)
At first the market-place, and later the civic centre of ancient Rome. The adjunct Romanum is not common; while magnum is not classical, though Cass. Dio, who here too   calls it '῾Ρωμαῖα, says that it was called μεγάλη after the construction of the forum Iulium. Strabo calls it ; ἡἀρχαῖα ἀγορά. Cf. Jord.  Regio VIII it is called Forum Romanum vel (et) magnum. The etymology is uncertain; the derivation from ferre is generally discarded, but nothing has been found to take its place.

The valley of the forum, and its continuation, the Velabrum, was at first a marshy valley, traversed by a stream, which served as one of the defences of the Palatine city and separated it from the Capitol and Quirinal; and the first extension of the original settlement towards the east and south, by which the 'Septimontium ' city was formed, still left it out. Outside the boundaries of this city, and on the edge of the valley there lay a burial ground, the so-called SEPULCRETUM (q.v.), the earliest tombs of which are variously dated, though the latest must go down to the end of the seventh or the middle of the sixth century B.C.

Roman tradition long preserved the memory of the original state of the forum.

The testimony of geology also shows that the centre of the valley was originally a swamp. Traces of man's presence were still found at 3.60 metres above sea-level (the lowest point reached in the excavations) near the foundations of the equestrian statue of Domitian, in the shape of fragments of carbonised wood; while, at between 6 and 7 metres above sea-level, the skeletons of three individuals (if not more) were brought to light. No proper report is as yet available, but Mosso studied the skull of a female, which he found to be very small and dolichocephalic. The height was only 1.22 metre; and near her was found the skeleton of a newly born infant. All three individuals were unburied; while a child found close by had been placed on a hollowed piece of wood, with a small vase near it. The archaic vases found in a travertine block enclosed in the concrete base of the EQUUS DOMITIANI (q.v.) belonged no doubt to a tomb, being exactly similar to those of the sepulcretum.

Hulsen indeed rightly claims that from the point of view of early Roman history, the confirmation of the traditional ascription of the cloaca Maxima to the Tarquins, who ruled over Rome in the sixth century B.C. is one of the most important results of the recent excavations.

The forum thus became a market-place-quo conferrent suas controversias, et quaevendere vellent quo ferrent, forum appellarunt . On each side there was a row of tabernae-the older, the veteres, on the south side, facing away from the sun; while another row, the novae, was later on placed on the opposite side. Games were also held here on the occasion of festivals or funerals, from the earliest times; justice was administered here, and it naturally became a place of public resort, first for business, then for politics and popular assembles, and later on for idleness or amusement. In this it was not dissimilar to the fora of other Roman cities in Italy and elsewhere. Fest. 84 says that there are six senses of the word: primo negotiationis locus ... alio, in quoiudicia fieri, cum populo agi, contiones haberi solent (the rest does not concern us); but the COMITIUM (q.v.) was peculiar to Rome, and was the stronghold of aristocratic government and tradition. This was a slightly higher area in front of the curia, which adjoined the forum on the north-east, being separated from it by the ROSTRA VETERA(q.v.) with the SEPULCRUM ROMULI (q.v.), while the VOLCANAL (q.v.) higher still, rose on the north-west, on the slopes of the Capitol.

The open area of the forum was traversed by triumphal processions on their way up to the clivus Capitolinus; but it is probable that the Sacra via, which entered at the south-east end, near the Regia, did not at first have a regularly marked-off course under ordinary circumstances. Other streets which radiated from this centre were the ARGILETUM (q.v.), and another street on the further side of the Tabernae Novae, which led to the Subura and the vicus Longus; the VICUS IUGARIUS and VICUS TUSCUS (q.v.), which led on each side of the Tabernae Veteres through the Velabrum to the forum Boarium, and so towards the river; the steps near the temple of Vesta, leading up to the Nova via and on to the clivus Victoriae; and the street between the curia and the temple of Concord, which led past the LAUTUMIAE (q.v.) (from which at first it took its name, being called clivus Argentarius under the late empire), which gave access to the campus Martius and to the roads to the north.

Conflicting influences are visible in the orientation of the buildings of the forum. The religious orientation of the earliest period, which followed the points of the compass, was always maintained in the shrine of Iuturna, the regia and the temple of Vesta, in the comitium and rostra until the time of Julius Caesar, and in the atrium Vestae (which, strictly speaking, lies, like the temple, outside the forum) until that of Nero. On the other hand, the line of direction of the temples of Saturn and of Castor (the lacus Iuturnae, at first orientated with the precinct of Vesta, was afterwards made to conform with this temple), which date from the beginning of the fifth century B.C., already began at that period to exert an influence the other way, which finally triumphed in the main. The Tabernae Veteres, and the various basilicas which succeeded them, doubtless conformed to it; and so did the Tabernae Novae, and consequently the basilica Aemilia. Julius Caesar's transference of the rostra and reconstruction of the curia dealt (with the exceptions noted above) the final blow to the old orientation.

The first indubitable signs of the existence of an open area with well- defined limits and at a fixed level appear at 60 metres above sea, and are to be recognised in the following remains of cappellaccio pavements: (a) in front of the basilica Aemilia; (b) in front of the temple of Julius Caesar; (c) under the fountain of Iuturna; (d) behind the republican Atrium Vestae.

To the next period (circa 174 B.C.) we must assign a level some half metre higher, which can be traced in the comitium, though in the forum proper there is nothing corresponding to it, except perhaps the remains of the pavement of the clivus Capitolinus of that date on the north-west side of the temple of Saturn, at 13.97 metres above sea-level. This is the period of the erection of permanent structures, called BASILICAE (see B. AEMILIA, PORCIA, SEMPRONIA) behind the two rows of tabernae- large covered halls which provided shelter from sun and rain, in which courts of law sat, and business was transacted. For the aspect of the forum at this time, see HC 12. fig. 4, and cf. Plaut. Curc. iv. I. 15. Another epoch in its history came, when, in 145 B.C., the Comitia Tributa were transferred to the forum by the tribune C. Licinius Crassus, who, for the first time, addressed the people in the forum from the rostra, and turned his back on the comitium. In 121 B.C. the restorer of the temple of Concord, Opimius, built a basilica close to it (see BASILICA OPIMIA).

The next level, which is in general 11.80 to 11.90 metres above sea, has been recently assigned to Sulla by Dr. Van Deman, who enumerates (p. 10) a number of pavements which belong to it: (I) those of Monte Verde tufa, near the shrine of Venus Cloacina and at the lacus Curtius, and the remains of a similar pavement near the concrete base in front of the temple of Julius Caesar. There are pieces of similar pavement outside the area of the forum proper, near the arch of Augustus and the temple of Vesta; ( those of brick tesserae under the vicus Tuscus and under the arches at the west end of the forum (called by Boni 'rostra Vetera ') ; and ( the selce pavement of the street under the east front of the arch of Augustus (which was also found among the foundations of the temple of Julius Caesar), which is commonly called the vicus Vestae. A row of pozzi 4 parallel to it has been traced on the side towards the forum. (There are also indications of a corresponding level in the comitium.) To this level conform the earlier basilica Aemilia, the shrine of Venus Cloacina, the lacus Curtius, and the fountain of Iuturna.

The central area of the Sullan forum was enclosed on three sides by streets paved with polygonal blocks of selce, which took the place of the early cappellaccio slabs; and some remains of the pavement of the clivus Capitolinus above that of 174 B.C., at 14.50 metres above sea-level, belong to this period also. So also does the viaduct (which Boni calls the rostra Vetera, but cf. ROSTRA, p. 45and CLIVUS CAPITOLINUS), the top of which is at the same level. Of buildings assignable to the period of Sulla we know of little except the curia and the rostra, both of which were restored by him; while the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus and the Tabularium were finished by Catulus.

The next level is 12.60 metres above sea-level. To this belong the travertine curbs of the shafts leading down to the remarkable series of cuniculi, as they are generally called underground passages the main line of which runs from the south-east end of the forum to the rostra of Augustus, with branches diverging at right angles . A few pieces of white marble pavement at this level have been brought to light ; and to it, too, belongs the restoration of the pavement of the lacus Curtius in slabs of travertine. This level is undoubtedly to be assigned to Julius Caesar's remodelling of the forum: Pliny tells us that when he gave a gladiatorial show, he covered the whole forum with awnings, as well as the Sacra via from his own house downwards and the whole of the clivus Capitolinus.

The travertine pavement of the forum of the Augustan period which is dated to that period by the inscription of L. Naevius Surdinus (see TRIBUNAL PRAETORIUM) rises from 12.60 metres above sea-level in front of the temple of Julius Caesar to metres above sea-level in front of the rostra of Augustus along the line of the main axis of the central area. The discovery of this inscription proved conclusively that this pavement continued to be in use until the end of the classical period, and that it was not, as had previously been believed, the work of a later date. The comitium had, largely owing to the erection of the rostra of Caesar and of the SAEPTA (q.v.), lost most of its political importance; and the forum, transformed by Augustus, who continued and carried out the designs of Julius Caesar, has come down to us much as he left it. The majority of the buildings by which it is surrounded belong to his time-the temples of Saturn, Concord, Castor and Julius Caesar, and the rostra, the two basilicas, the regia and the milliarium aureum. The curia, though reconstructed by Diocletian, occupies the site of the curia Iulia; and the only other monuments we have to add are the temples of Vespasian and of Antoninus and Faustina (the latter really lies outside the limits of the forum proper), the arch of Septimius Severus, the portico of the Dii Consentes, and the umbilicus.

The famous reliefs which are believed to have stood on the ROSTRA of Augustus (q.v.), whether they belong to the period of Domitian or of Trajan, represent in all its essentials the forum as it was recreated by Augustus. The equestrian statue of Domitian (EQUUS DOMITIANI, q.v.) made only an ephemeral appearance in the central area of the forum; the tribunal of Trajan never existed; and this area must have long remained clear of monuments of any sort.

In 283, under Carinus, a great fire raged in the forum, which gave an opportunity for extensive building operations by Diocletian and his successors.

The seven bases which flank the Sacra via, opposite the basilica Iulia, are attributed to the period of Diocletian owing to the existence in them of brick-stamps of Constantine. But inasmuch as the brickfaced concrete of some of them shows clear traces of having been built round a core of opus quadratum, we must suppose either that the nucleus was formed of this material, or that this belongs to similar bases for statues of an earlier period. The columns along the Sacra via are represented in the relief referred to on p. 452. Though the brickwork of the base of the column of Phocas is similar to that of the other bases, it is perhaps unlikely that it was erected as early as the time of Diocletian (though certainly long before 608 A.D.), as it would have obstructed the front of the rostra. On the other hand, an equestrian statue of Constantine (EQUUS CONSTANTINI) was erected in the centre of the area, just to the south-east of the spot where that of Domitian had stood.

But the transfer of the imperial residence to Byzantium led to an inevitable decline ; and the forum became the scene of struggles between Paganism and Christianity. Monuments of the beginning of the fifth century may be found there (see ROSTRA AUGUSTI), but in 4the fires which accompanied the plundering of Rome by Alaric destroyed many of the buildings of the forum, and notably the basilica Aemilia, which was never rebuilt. A terrible earthquake is recorded in 442; while in 455 the Vandals under Gaiseric pillaged Rome; and the inscription placed on the rostra in commemora- tion of the naval victory of 470 is the last monument of the western empire in the forum. Theodoric (483-526), on the other hand, must have repaired many of the buildings of the forum, where a considerable number of bricks bearing his name have been found ; and Theodohad's care for certain bronze statues of elephants (probably from an arch of triumph) in 535-6 is testified to by Cassiodorus (Var. x. 30). The first church in the forum was SS. Cosmas and Damianus (526-530), while the origin of S. Maria Antiqua is probably even earlier; S. Hadrianus and S. Martina occupied the curia and the secretarium about 20 years after the dedication of the column of Phocas (608 A.D.); while the basilica Aemilia and the atrium Vestae became the dwellings of Byzantine or papal officials.

It was the earthquake in the time of Pope Leo IV in 847 which led to the destruction not only of S. Maria Antiqua, but of the majority of the monuments of the forum; and probably the fire of Robert Guiscard in 1084 caused great damage also. Certainly about 1130 the centre of the forum was entirely impassable; and the description given in the Mirabilia, the genesis of which dates from this period, shows a curious mixture of real knowledge, false conjecture and pure imagina- tion. The level of the forum rose gradually, and desolation increased. The return of Pope Urban V from Avignon (1367) led to an increased interest in ancient monuments, though they were often sacrificed as building material; and during the Renaissance this latter tendency became much stronger, despite the general spread of classical culture. In fact, the very architects who measured and drew the remains of antiquity were most active in using them as quarries for their own build- ings. But we also have numerous sketches by artists, which cannot be enumerated here, but are of the highest value for our knowledge. A few notable finds of inscriptions and fragments of architecture were made; but nothing was attempted in the way of scientific excavation until the end of the eighteenth century, when a part of the basilica Iulia was laid bare, but incorrectly identified.

In 1803 Fea began by clearing the arch of Severus, and the work was continued by the French, the temples of Saturn and Vespasian being isolated, and the column of Phocas cleared; the temples of Castor and Concord followed. The work was continued in 1827-36, and the isolated excavations connected; but very little more was done until after 1870, when the work was taken in hand seriously, and the forum and Sacra via cleared from the Tabularium to the arch of Titus. Work stopped again in 1885, and was not resumed again until 1898, when extensive excavations were begun by Boni and carried to the lowest strata at many points over the whole area. In this connection a passage in LR 240, written in 1897, just before Boni's excavations began, should be quoted. ' It is necessary to remind the reader that the excavations of the Forum and of the Palatine have nowhere been carried to the proper depth. We have satisfied ourselves with laying bare the remains of the late empire, without taking care to explore the earlier and deeper strata.' At the same time came the addition of the site of the basilica Aemilia and of the comitium; and the demolition of the church of S. Maria Liberatrice rendered it possible to connect up the forum with the Palatine, and to lay bare the lacus Iuturnae, the whole group of S. Maria Antiqua, the horrea Agrippiana, etc.

The best guides to the voluminous literature of the forum, and to its history through the ages are: Jord.

 
6 - 92 FORUM RUSTICORUM.
Mentioned only in App. I of Reg. with the FORUM GALLORUM, and very doubtful 
 
6 - 93 FORUM SUARIUM.
The pork market of Rome during the empire, mentioned first in two inscriptions of about 200 A.D., and then in documents of later date. This market was near the barracks of the cohortes urbanae in the northern part of the campus Martius, probably close to the present Propaganda, and its administration was in the hands of the prefect or of one of his officers. See  CAMPUS PECUARIUS.
 
6 - 94 FORUM TAURI.
Evidently an open forum in Region V, in the neighbourhood of the HORTI TAURIANI (q.v.), and perhaps within the limits of the region caput Tauri. References to both are found only in mediaeval literature; to the forum in connection with the martyrdom of S. Bibiana; and to the caput here and also elsewhere. The forum was therefore probably near S. Bibiana, while the caput Tauri extended some distance around it, and was perhaps separated from the horti Tauriani by the via Tiburtina vetus. It is not to be confused with the locality known as AD TAURUM (q.v.) near the thermae Traianae. It is also possible that L. Statilius Taurus, consul in 44 A.D., who owned the horti, constructed the forum and adorned it with bulls' heads, which in turn gave the name to the surrounding region. The porta S. Lorenzo was called porta Taurina in the twelfth century and later.
 
6 - 95 FORUM TRAIANI.
The last, largest and most magnificent of the imperial fora, built by Trajan with the assistance of the Greek architect Apollodorus, and dedicated, at least in part, about 1A.D. When completed by Trajan it consisted of the forum proper, the basilica Ulpia, the column of Trajan, and the bibliotheca, and extended from the forum Augustum north-west between the Capitoline and Ouirinal hills, with the same orientation as the other imperial fora. Unlike these it did not contain a central temple of which it formed a virtual porticus. After Trajan's death, however, Hadrian erected the great temple of Trajan on the north-west side of the bibliotheca, which thenceforth formed an integral part of the forum whole, and made it conform somewhat to the imperial type. Although the walls of the forum of Trajan and the forum of Augustus seem to have been separated by a short distance, they must have been connected by a wide avenue at least, and thus Caesar's plan of connecting the forum Romanum and the campus Martius was finally carried out.

The construction of Trajan's forum necessitated much excavation and levelling. The space thus prepared was 185 metres in width, and the extreme length of forum and temple precinct was about 3metres. The inscription on the pedestal of the column was formerly taken to mean that the height of the column (100 Roman feet) was that of a ridge between the Capitoline and Quirinal hills which had to be cut away, but geological evidence showed that it never existed. This was confirmed by the discovery of an ancient street and houses of the early empire beneath the foundation of the column. In view of this fact various attempts have been made to explain the inscription, and especially mons, in some other way. The least unsatisfactory explanation as yet suggested is that mons refers to the extreme eastern shoulder of the Quirinal, the collis Latiaris, that was cut back so far that the height of the excavation was approximately 100 feet. Groh accepts this view, explaining that the mons was probably situated to the north-west of the forum of Augustus; and suggests that the column was not placed there, but further west, in order that Trajan's tomb might not fall within the Pomerium.

The forum proper was a rectangular court 1metres wide and 95 long, enclosed by a wall of peperino faced with marble, except on the sides, where great hemicycles, 45 metres in depth, projected outwards. Around three sides was a colonnade of different kinds of marble, single on the south-east, and double on the north-east and south-west. The entrance to the area was in the middle of the south-east side, opposite the forum of Augustus, where in 116, the year of Trajan's death, the senate erected a magnificent arch to commemorate his victories in Dacia. This arch is represented on coins as single, but with three columns on each side of the passage way and niches between the columns. It was surmounted by a six-horse chariot, in which stood the emperor crowned by Victory. On the roof of the colonnade were gilded statues of horses and military standards, provided from the spoils of war (Gell. xiii. 25), and in the centre of the area was a bronze equestrian statue of Trajan himself. On each side was a smaller arch; and the three entrances corresponded to those of the basilica Ulpia. One of the colonnades in this forum was called porticus Purpuretica, probably because the columns were of porphyry.

In the intercolumnar spaces of the porticoes, and perhaps here and there in the area, Trajan and his successors set up statues of many distinguished statesmen and generals. A large number of the inscriptions on these statues have been found within the precincts of the forum, some of which state that they were placed 'in foro Traiani ' (M. Claudius Fronto, CIL vi. 31640, M. Bassaeus Rufus 1599, Claudian the poet 1710, Flavius Eugenius 172Fl. Peregrinus Saturninus 1727), in foro Ulpio (Merobaudes 1724, Petronius Maximus 1749), while the rest omit any such statement.

In this forum the consuls, and presumably other officials, held court, and slaves were freed; here Hadrian burned the notes of debtors to the state, Marcus Aurelius sold the treasures of the imperial palace to defray the expenses of war, and Aurelian burned the lists of the proscribed; and here the laws were frequently fastened up on bronze tablets. Down to 353 A.D. the senators kept their money and silver in chests in this forum and the place of deposit was called Opes. The forum is represented on coins, and is mentioned in Reg..

The hemicycle on the north-east side of the forum area has been partially excavated. Built of ornamental brick with travertine trimmings, it consists principally of two stories of chambers abutting directly against the side of the Quirinal hill. The rooms on the ground floor, which were probably shops, open on the marble pavement of the forum. Above the first story is a gallery with Tuscan pilasters, into which the rooms of the second story open. Above this gallery there was another story, the front of which was not flush with the lower facade but pushed back on the slope of the hill. The semi-circular space in front of this hemicycle was paved with white marble and surrounded with a colonnade decorated with gilt bronze trophies.

Still higher, on the upper level of the Quirinal, is a series of halls, now occupied by the barracks of the Milizia, approached by steps from the forum level (Ann. Assoc. Art. cult. Arch. 1910-1The mediaeval name Magnanapoli is by some thought to be a corruption of Balnea Pauli, but this is itself merely a sixteenth century invention, based on a false reading in Juvenal.(See BALINEUM PHOEBI.)

Hulsen quotes a privilege of 938 which speaks of Adrianus quondam de banneo Neapolim; and the name occurs in the form mons Balnei Neapolis and mons Manianapoli in the thirteenth century. Here must have been situated the church of S. Salvator de Divitiis or in Cryptis.

Two drawings by Cronaca (?) show a portion of the south enclosure wall of the forum proper, which was of blocks of white marble, and decorated with an internal colonnade like the forum Transitorium, with a line of tabernae outside. The frieze with a griffin and cupids, now in the Lateran, belonged to this wall, and from its style has been attributed to the period of Domitian. It has also been thought that the brickfacing of the north-east hemicycle is characteristic of his reign. If, however, this were so, we should have to attribute to Domitian the removal of the mass of earth from the slopes of the Quirinal which is communicated by the inscription on the column of Trajan-and this is of course impossible.

The name porticus curva should probably be applied to the south-western hemicycle of this forum, and not to the apse of the Secretarium Senatus; see CURIA IULIA.

On the north-west side of the area of the forum was the basilica Ulpia, rectangular in shape with apses at each end. Its floor was one metre higher than the level of the area, and was approached by flights of steps of giallo antico. The main entrance was in the middle of the east side, from the area of the forum, where there was a decorative fagade, represented with variations on three coins. This consisted of a row of ten columns, probably of yellow marble, in the line of the wall, with six others in front on three projecting platforms. These columns supported an entablature and attics on which stood quadrigae and statues of triumphatores. The central quadriga was escorted by Victories. The great hall of the basilica was surrounded with a double row of columns, 96 in all, probably of white or yellow marble, with Corinthian capitals, which formed two aisles 5 metres wide, and supported a gallery on both sides of the nave and at the ends. The nave itself was 25 metres wide, and the total length of the rectangle, without the apses, about 130. The walls of the basilica were faced with marble, and its roof was of timber covered with bronze which is mentioned by Pausanias as one of the most notable features of the whole structure.

The central part of the basilica has been excavated, but the fragmentary granite columns now standing do not belong here, although they have been placed on the original bases. Some of the original pavement of white marble is still in situ. The architectural fragments now visible in the forum have not been properly assigned to its various parts. For the reliefs attributable to the frieze which decorated the wall surrounding the forum, some of which were used for the decoration of the arch of Constantine, while other fragments are in the Villa Medici and the Louvre.

On one of the fragments of the Marble Plan, in the north-east apse of the basilica, is the inscription LIBERTATIS; and Sidonius Apollinaris seems to refer to this shrine, and to indicate that the ceremony of manumitting slaves, previously performed in the ATRIUM LIBERTATIS (q.v.), took place here. This was probably a sacellum, not merely a statue, and its presence may indicate that this goddess was recognised as the presiding divinity of this forum, a choice significant of the liberal character of the emperor.

On the north-east side of the basilica Ulpia was a small rectangular court, 24 metres wide and deep, formed by the basilica itself, the two halls of the bibliotheca (see below), and, later, the temple of Trajan. In the centre of this court the columna Traiani was erected in 1A.D. Nibby had already pointed out that the colonnade joining the two libraries on the north was only removed when the column was built.

Its construction is ascribed in the dedicatory inscription on the pedestal to the senate and people, but elsewhere to Trajan himself, who is said to have built it to show the depth of excavation of his forum, and for his sepulchre. It is also figured on several coins of Trajan after 113.  It was called columna cochlis, and was a columna centenaria, like the COLUMN OF M. AURELIUS (q.v.), although the latter adjective is not actually applied to it in the few extant references in ancient literature.

It is built of Parian marble. The shaft and basis, composed of blocks, 3.70 metres in diameter, with the additional block that forms the capital, and the plinth which is cut in the upper block of the pedestal, measure 100 Roman feet (29.77 metres) in height. The height of shaft and pedestal together is 38 metres, which corresponds with the figures of the Notitia. On its top was a statue of Trajan in gilt bronze, of which we have no representation. Sixtus V erected the present statue of S. Peter in 1588.

Within the hollow column a spiral staircase with 185 steps leads to the top. Light is furnished by 43 narrow slits in the wall. The pedestal, 5.4 metres high and 5.5 square, is ornamented on three sides with trophies. The south-east side has a door, and above it the inscrip- tion. Within the pedestal are a vestibule, a hallway, and a rectangular sepulchral chamber lighted by a window on the south-west side, in which the ashes of Trajan in a golden urn were probably placed. This chamber was evidently robbed, for when re-excavated in 1906, it was found that a hole had been cut through the travertine foundation. To secure the stability of the structure the chamber itself had afterward been filled up with concrete, certainly after 1764, in which year one Radet wrote his name on the lintel of the door.

The entire surface of the shaft is covered with reliefs, arranged on a spiral band, which varies in width from about go centimetres at the bottom to nearly 1.25 metre at the top. These reliefs represent the principal events in the campaigns of Trajan in Dacia between 101 and 106 A.D., and also form a complete encyclopedia of the organisation and equipment of the Roman army in the second century. The average height of the figures is 60 centimetres, and they were cut after the column had been erected, so that the joints of the blocks are almost entirely concealed. These reliefs were also coloured most brilliantly. Casts of these reliefs may be seen in the Lateran Museum, St. Germain near Paris, and the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, London. In this connection it is worth noting that the earliest exemplification of the idea of a column decorated with a spiral band may be seen in a fresco on the back wall of the central room (the so-called tablinum) of the house of Augustus (Livia) on the Palatine.

The little church of S. Nicolas de Columna at the base of the column is mentioned as early as 1029-32. It disappeared between 1560 and 1570. For some heads of animals which may have come from the forum, see LS; and for the relief of an eagle in the church of SS. Apostoli, which is traditionally attributed to this forum,.

On either side of the column and abutting against the north-east wall of the basilica were the two buildings of the library, the bibliotheca Ulpia; also called bibliotheca templi Traiani. One building was for Greek and the other for Latin books. In both were reading rooms, and on the walls were placed busts of celebrated authors. State archives, such as the edicts of the praetors and the libri lintei, or acts of the emperors, were kept here. At a later period, and for some unknown reason, the books were transferred to the baths of Diocletian. v. Domaszewski considers all the statements of the author of the Hist. Aug. to be pure inventions, arguing that the only correct name for the library is bibliotheca Traiani, and that the bibliotheca Ulpia was a library in Nemausus (Nimes) of which the author was curator. See SCHOLA FORI TRAIANI.

The forum of Trajan was completed by Hadrian, who erected the great temple of Trajan and his wife Plotina, templum divi Traiani. The temple was octostyle peripteral, and stood on a raised platform, round which was a porticus. Fragments of its granite columns 2 metres in diameter, of smaller columns 1.80 metre in diameter, and some corresponding capitals of the Corinthian order, have been found at various times. The reliefs found within the area of the forum may have belonged to the temple, but more probably to the encircling colonnade.

The forum of Trajan was probably the most impressive and magnificent group of buildings in Rome, and a vivid picture is given of the astonishment of the Emperor Constantius on the occasion of his visit to it in 356 A.D. The history of its destruction begins with the sixth century, and throughout the Middle Ages it furnished an almost inexhaustible supply of decorative material for the churches and palaces of Rome.
 
6 - 96 FORUM TRANSITORIUM.
see FORUM NERVAE.
 
6 - 97 FORUM ULPIUM.
see FORUM TRAIANI.
 
6 - 98 FORUM VESPASIANI.
see TEMPLUM PACIS.
 
6 - 99 FORUM VINARIUM.
Known only from the mention of argentarii de foro vinario in four inscriptions (CIL vi. 9181 abc, 918, but perhaps to be connected with the PORTUS VINARIUS (q.v.) and to be located near the Emporium 
 
6 - 100 FOSSAE QUIRITIUM.
see CLOACA MAXIMA.
 
6 - 101 FREGELLAE.
A quarter in Rome inhabited by Fregellans, perhaps the survivors of the destruction of Fregellae in 124 B.C.
 
6 - 102 FRIGIANUM.
see TEMPLUM MAGNAE MATRIS IN VATICANO.
 
6 - 103 A FURCA.
Found on one inscription: Iulius casarus a furca; apparently a district of the city.
 
6 - 104 FURRINA.
see LUCUS FURRINAE.
 
7 G.
7 - 1 GAIA.
A calendar anterior to Julius Caesar recently found at Antium notes, under 8th Dec., Tiberino, Gaiae. The cult of Tiberinus on the insula Tiberina was already known; and that of Gaia was perhaps carried on in the same shrine. Gaia is Gaia Taracia (see CAMPUS TIBERINUS) or Fufetia, who is identified either with Tarquinia, the virtuous Vestal of Numa's day, or with her antitype Tarpeia
 
7 - 2 GAIANUM.
an open space in Region XIV, south of the naumachia Vaticana and east of the via Triumphalis, where Caligula was fond of having horse races. From inscriptions found in the vicinity it appears to have been surrounded by statues of successful charioteers.
 
7 - 3 GALLINAE ALBAE.
Probably a street or district in Reg. VI (Reg.) and in the fourth ecclesiastical region, on the western part of the Viminal, in the neighbourhood of S. Lorenzo in Panisperna. The name was preserved by the church of S. Sixtus in Gallina Alba. For the name as applied to a part of the villa of Livia, on the via Flaminia, see JRS
 
7 - 4 AD GEMELLOS.
Mentioned twice in Frontinus: locus infra SPEM VETEREM (q.v.), that is, near the porta Praenestina, where the aqua Appia and aqua Augusta joined.
 
7 - 5 GEMONIAE.
see SCALAE GEMONIAE.
 
7 - 6 GENIUS CASTRORUM, SACELLUM.
A shrine or altar dedicated to the Genius of the CASTRA PEREGRINA (q.v.) on the Caelian, known only from inscriptions.
 
7 - 7 GENIUS POPULI ROMANI.

( a shrine dedicated to the Genius of the Roman people, near the temple of Concord in the forum, mentioned twice in connection with prodigies in the years 43 and 32 B.C., and on an inscription, which probably means that the shrine was close to the rostra, and this agrees with the order in Not..

( According to the calendars sacrifices were offered on 9th October to the Genius populi Romani, Felicitas and Venus Victrix in Capitolio, and therefore there was probably a shrine or altar of this Genius on the Capitol also. Whether it was dedicated to the Genius alone, or to the triad, is uncertain
 
7 - 8 GENS FLAVIA, TEMPLUM.

A temple erected by Domitian on the site of his father's, Vespasian's, house, in which he himself was born. This was on the Quirinal just south of the Alta Semita, the present Via Venti Settembre, ad Malum Punicum, the modern Via delle Quattro Fontane. It was struck by lightning in 96 A.D.; probably enlarged by Claudius Gothicus in 268-270 A.D., and was standing in the fourth century. It was probably round in shape, and was intended to serve as the mausoleum of the Flavian dynasty. Domitian's ashes were placed there, and it is probable that he had, before his death, removed thither the ashes of his father and brother. It was a magnificent structure, and evidently regarded as a symbol of the eternity of Rome. Nothing is known of the building after the fourth century, and no certain traces of it have been found
 
7 - 9 GENS IULIA, ARA.
An altar on the Capitoline, presumably in the AREA CAPITOLINA (q.v.). Copies of a number of the diplomata of honourably discharged soldiers, belonging to the years after 71 A.D., state that the originals were fastened to this altar, and it is no doubt this altar that is referred to in a fragment of the Acta Fratrum Arvalium of uncertain date.
 
 
7 - 11 GRADUS AURELII.
see TRIBUNAL AURELIUM.
 
7 - 12 GRADUS GEMITORII.
see SCALAE GEMONIAE.
 
7 - 13 GRADUS HELIOGABALI.
Mentioned twice in mediaeval documents, and probably on the north-east part of the Palatine (TEMPLUM ELAGABALI).
 
7 - 14 GRADUS MONETAE.
Steps mentioned only in Ovid, and evidently leading up to the arx from the temple of Concord. It is not certain whether these steps were independent of the scalae Gemoniae, or are to be identified with them, or were a prolongation of them 
 
7 - 15 GRADUS S. SABINAE.
steps leading down to the Tiber from the church of S. Sabina on the north-west side of the Aventine. They are mentioned only by Gregory the Great and are marked SCALAE GEMONIAE (q.v.) on Bufalini's map of the city (155.
 
7 - 16 GRAECOSTADIUM.
An area enclosed by walls or buildings and evidently of considerable size in Region VIII. It was restored by Antoninus Pius after a fire (Hist. Aug. Ant. Pii 8), and burned again in the reign of Carinus. Part of the name -Graecost-appears on a fragment (19) of the Marble Plan, and this fragment probably belongs south of the basilica Iulia. The inscription on a slave's collar found in the Tiber, the statement in Seneca that there were dealers in worthless slaves near the temple of Castor, and the fact that the Graecostadium is mentioned in the Notitia between the vicus Iugarius and porticus Margaritaria, and in the Curiosum between the vicus and the basilica Iulia, make it probable that the Graecostadium was an open court, surrounded by buildings that were used for shops or dwellings, and that it was situated south of the forum, between it and the present church of S. Maria della Consolazione. It may be identified with the ῾Ελ.. of Plutarch which is called τέ.. and in front of which was a barber's shop.
 
7 - 17 GRAECOSTASIS.
A raised place at the edge of the comitium, which served as a sort of tribunal for ambassadors from foreign states, especially Greeks. It was near the curia, on the west of the rostra, and the relative position of these structures is determined by the statement of Pliny that the accensus of the consuls proclaimed the hour of noon when, from the curia, he saw the sun between the rostra and Graecostasis-that is, in the south. On the other hand, we are told that in 304 B.C. Cn. Flavius erected a small bronze shrine (aedicula) to CONCORDIA (q.v.) on the Graecostasis quae tunc supra Comitium erat, and this 'aedes ' is also spoken of as 'in area Volcani ' a statement that may mean that the Graecostasis had been moved or had ceased to exist at all in Pliny's day. About 30 B.C. sacrifices were offered to Luna 'in Graecostasi', and for the years 137, 130, 124 B.C., it is recorded that it rained blood or milk on the Graecostasis . The Graecostasis was therefore an open platform between the comitium and the forum, on the site afterwards occupied by the arch of Severus, and eastwards., where Van Deman places it under and north of the rostra of Augustus. Hiilsen places it conjecturally to the west of the Lapis Niger, but the pavement here is probably the pavement of the Sullan rostra vetera. Nothing is known of its history after the Augustan age, nor is its exact purpose certain. Other explanations have been given, but it was probably the place where foreign ambassadors awaited their summons into the senate. For a theory that its place was taken by the Graecostadium see DR.
 
7 - 18 GYMNASIUM NERONIS.
A building for gymnastic purposes, dedicated by Nero in 62 A.D., or in 60 after the establishment of the Neronia. Later in 62 the gymnasium was burned and a bronze statue of Nero melted. Philostratus says that it was one of the most wonderful buildings in the city.

There are no other references to this gymnasium, but it would be natural to suppose that it was near or connected with the THERMAE (q.v.), which Nero is said to have dedicated at the same time. The language of Philostratus seems to make no distinction between γυμνάσιον and βαλανεῖον, so that no inference can be drawn from it as to the existence or non-existence of the gymnasium in his time. Hulsen therefore assumes that the gymnasium was an integral part of the baths, and that gymnasium and thermae were names of the same structure. In view of what is said of the burning of the gymnasium, it is more probable that they were separate buildings.

1 It is more correct to say that what Vitruvius (v. io) describes are baths pure and simple, to which Nero added the Greek gymnasium. It is to be noted that Cass. Dio calls the thermae of Nero, Trajan, and Licinius Sura γυμνάσιον, and those of Agrippa.
 
8 H.
8 - 1 DIVUS HADRIANUS TEMPLUM, HADRIANEUM
A temple of the deified Hadrian in the campus Martius, dedicated by Antoninus Pius in 145 A.D.. From its position in the list of Reg. 9, it was probably between the column of Marcus Aurelius and the thermae Alexandrinae, and is to be identified with the ancient structure in the Piazza di Pietra which is now the Bourse and was formerly called erroneously the basilica or temple of Neptune. See BASILICA NEPTUNI.

A part of the north-east side is still standing and consists of eleven fluted columns of white marble with Corinthian capitals and a richly decorated entablature. The columns are metres in height and 1.44 in diameter. The order is very like that of the temple of Serapis (?) on the Quirinal. The cornice has been so badly restored as to appear now in three patterns. The wall of the cella behind the columns is of peperino, and the original marble lining has entirely disappeared. Cella and columns stand upon a lofty stylobate till lately buried beneath the surface of the ground.

The stylobate was adorned with reliefs, those beneath the columns representing the provinces, and those in the intercolumnar spaces trophies of victory. In all, sixteen statues of provinces and six trophies are in existence, but they are in five different collections in Rome and Naples. It is probable that the temple was octostyle, peripteral, with fifteen columns on a side. If a wide flight of steps occupied the whole front of the stylobate, there would be space for thirty-six reliefs beneath the remaining columns of the peristyle, the number of provinces in the time of Hadrian.

This temple was enclosed by a rectangular porticus, of which some ruins have been found-namely, portions of a travertine pavement 4 metres below the present level of the soil, peperino blocks, a Corinthian column of yellow marble, and various architectural fragments. It is possible that this may be the PORTICUS ARGONAUTARUM
 
8 - 2 HECATOSTYLON
a porticus of one hundred columns represented on a fragment (3 of the Marble Plan as a row of columns on each side of a long wall running along the north side of the porticus Pompei, of which it may have formed a part. It was burned in 247 A.D.. For possible remains of this building see LS. Hiilsen's comparison of it with the so-called Poikile at Hadrian's villa is illuminating. From Martial we learn that the plane grove which surrounded it was adorned with bronze statues of wild beasts (ferae), including that of a bear: the correlative is the locality known as MANSUETAE.
 
8 - 3 HELIOGABALIUM.
see ELAGABALI TEMPLUM.
 
8 - 4 HERCULES, TEMPLUM.
A temple of Hercules outside the porta Collina, to which Hannibal advanced when he marched against Rome in 2B.C.. Nothing further is known of this temple, for the two inscriptions, sometimes referred to it, were found one and two kilometres from the porta Collina.
 
8 - 5 HERCULES, TEMPLUM (?)
On the site afterwards occupied by the Teatro Apollo near Ponte S. Angelo; Here remains of a small round temple (?) with two capitals in the form of a lion's skin were found and a beautiful altar of the Augustan period, decorated with bucrania and plane leaves. An architrave with LIB . . . scratched upon it was also found, and led to the erroneous supposition that the temple was dedicated to Bacchus.
 
8 - 6 HERCULES CUBANS.
A monument on the right bank of the Tiber, mentioned only in the Regionary Catalogue, which may have been either a statue or a shrine of some kind. In 1889, within the limits of the HORTI CAESARIS (q.v.), just south of the Trastevere station, a shrine was discovered cut in the tufa rock and dedicated to Hercules, who is represented as reclining at table; together with seven heads of charioteers, and with two inscriptions recording a dedication by L. Domitius Permissus. To this another inscription may perhaps belong, and the shrine is now generally identified with the Hercules Cubans.
 
8 - 7 HERCULES CUSTOS, AEDES.
A temple of Hercules, near the circus Flaminius, built in accordance with the command of the Sibyl, and dedicated on 4th June.

The reference to Sulla probably means that Sulla restored an existing temple. In 2B.C. a supplicatio was decreed ad aedem Herculis, and in 189 a statue of the god was placed in aede Herculis. If, as is probable, this aedes is that restored by Sulla, the original temple must have been erected before 218, probably about the time of the erection of the circus Flaminius in 22of which Hercules was regarded as the guardian. The day of dedication is recorded in the calendars. This last is interpreted to mean that in the fourth century the cult festival was still celebrated, and that ' in Minicia' implies that the temple was within (or close to ?) the PORTICUS MINUCIA (q.v.), that is, at the west end of the circus Maximus. With this location agrees the statement of Ovid (vid. sup.) that this temple was at the opposite end of the circus from the temple of BELLONA (q.v.), for the latter was probably north-east of the circus.

In the garden of the church of S. Nicola ai Cesarini, close to its south wall, are the remains of a circular peripteral temple, with concrete podium and fluted columns of tufa, sixteen in number, covered with stucco and standing on travertine bases, fragments of seven of which have been preserved. The masonry of this structure has been attributed to the fourth century B.C., and it is represented on the Marble Plan. Form and location suggest an identification with the temple of Hercules, but with no degree of certainty. Frank, however, regards it as belonging to the time of Sulla and therefore returns to the former identification.
 
8 - 8 HERCULES FUNDAN(I)US, TEMPLUM
A temple of Hercules which is believed by some to have been in Rome (cf. LACUS FUNDANI), because of an inscription which is reported to have been found in the city. Others place it in Fundi (cf. HERCULES TIBURTINUS). The literary references from Porphyr. Can be explained on either hypothesis, but it seems reasonable to assume a shrine in Rome.
 
8 - 9 HERCULIS INVICTI ARA MAXIMA.
The earliest cult-centre of Hercules in Rome, in the forum Boarium, erected, according to tradition, when Hercules had slain Cacus, and his divinity had been recognised by Evander. The dedication of this altar was ascribed by one form of tradition-probably the earliest-to Evander, by another to Hercules himself, and by a third to the companions whom Hercules left behind in Italy. In the forum Boarium, its site is also described as post ianuas circi Maximi, iuxta circum, and within the line of the Palatine pomerium at one corner. It stood, therefore, in the eastern part of the forum Boarium, near the carceres of the circus, and probably very near to the temple of HERCULES VICTOR(q.v.), that is, at the north-east corner of the Piazza di Bocca della Verita, north of S. Maria in Cosmedin.

This altar was burned in the fire of Nero, but was restored, and was standing in the fourth century. To the second, third, and fourth centuries belong several inscriptions, dedicated by praetors to Hercules Invictus, which were found near by when the ruins of the round temple, identified with that of HERCULES VICTOR (q.v.), were destroyed during the pontificate of Sixtus IV, and it is not certain whether these inscriptions belonged to the temple or ara, or both. No traces of the altar itself have ever been found. By Tacitus and Juvenal the altar is called magna instead of maxima.

It would be natural to enclose the altar, and some kind of a sacred precinct may be indicated by certain passages in literature rather than the aedes Herculis Invicti. A statue of Hercules triumphalis in the forum Boarium, ascribed by tradition to Evander and probably referred to by Macrobius and Servius, may have been in this ancient precinct of the ara rather than in the temple. An inscription recently acquired by the Lateran Museum mentions an aedes dedicated to Hercules Invictus Esychianus. Its provenance is unknown, but Hiilsen conjectures that it belonged to a chapel situated in the vicinity of the forum Boarium, in which the cult of Hercules was centred. Like the first of the two inscriptions cited, it was dedicated to Hercules by Hierus and Asylus, slaves of Tiberius Claudius Livianus, praefectus praetorio under Trajan. The name Esychianus is explained by the fact that the second inscription is a dedication (also to Hercules) by one M. Claudius Hesychus, probably a freedman of Livianus.
 
8 - 10 HERCULES INVICTUS.
A temple of Hercules near the porta Trigemina. Its day of dedication was 13th August. It was probably close to the altar of IUPPITER INVENTOR (q.v.), which Hercules was said to have built after slaying Cacus. Whether this was the temple built by the merchant Marcus Octavius Herrenus, and whether it is alluded to on a coin of Antoninus Pius is entirely uncertain. Another coin has a strong claim to represent the temple and the altar of Iuppiter; the former has eight columns, and so has a coin of Maximinn, where the temple built by Herrenus is identified with that of Hercules Victor in the forum Boarium.
 
8 - 11 HERCULES MUSARUM, AEDES.
A temple of Hercules and the Muses, erected by M. Fulvius Nobilior after his capture of Ambracia in 189 B.C., and probably after his triumph in 187. Fulvius is said to have done this because he learned in Greece that Hercules was a musagetes (c. 297 A.D.). In this temple Fulvius set up a copy of the Fasti with notes, probably the first of this kind, and also the statues from Ambracia of the nine Muses by an unknown artist, and that of Hercules playing the lyre; and a bronze shrine of the Muses that was attributed to the time of Numa and had been in the temple of Honos et Virtus until this was built. The statue of Hercules and those of the nine Muses are represented on denarii of Q. Pomponius Musa, about 64 B.C. In 29 B.C. L. Marcius Philippus restored this temple and built a porticus, the PORTICUS PHILIPPI (q.v.) around it. The day of dedication was 30th June.

This temple is mentioned in Not., and its site is ascertained from a fragment (3 of the Marble Plan. It was in circo Flaminio (Eum. loc. cit.), that is, close to the south-west part of the circus itself, and north-west of the porticus Octaviae, where some remains have been found that probably belonged to this temple. An inscription found near by may have been on the pedestal of one of the statues. The regular form of the name was Herculis Musarum aedes, but Herculis et Musarum in Servius and Plutarch 
 
8 - 12 HERCULES OLIVARIUS
A monument of Hercules in Region XI (Not.), which may have been either a shrine or a statue  (cf. HERCULES CUBANS). Some evidence for the latter view is a marble base found near the round temple in the forum Boarium, with an inscription. The epithet olivarius may well indicate the presence in that district of dealers in oil who regarded Hercules as their tutelary deity.
 
8 - 13 HERCULES POMPEIANUS, AEDES
A temple of Hercules near the circus Maximus, described as araeostyle and decorated in the Tuscan manner. It contained a statue of Hercules by Myron. The epithet would indicate either an original building or a restoration by Pompeius, but in any case this temple could not be identified with the round temple of Hercules in the forum Boarium. The notice in the calendar probably refers to this temple, as it alone has the designation ad circum maximum in literature (see above). If so, it was dedicated on 12th August to Hercules Invictus.

Under the eastern part of S. Maria in Cosmedin are remains of the tufa foundations and walls of a temple of the republican period, which appears to have existed, although in a ruined state, until the time of Hadrian I, when it was entirely destroyed. The position of this temple could properly be described as ad circum maximum, and its identification with the aedes Herculis Pompeiani is reasonable, but by no means certain. It is possible that some of the references to a temple of Hercules in foro Boario may belong to this temple, but it seems certain that it cannot be identified with the round temple in the forum Boarium, or with the temple ad portam Trigeminam. This distinction, however, involves a contradiction of Macrobius' statement, and no satisfactory reconciliation has yet been suggested.
 
8 - 14 HERCULES PRIMIGENIUS.
Apparently a shrine or altar of Hercules, which was also used as an indication of locality, if we may accept that interpretation of two inscriptions. The epithet is of uncertain significance, and nothing is known of this cult or of the location of the shrine. 
 
8 - 15 HERCULES SULLANUS.
A statue or shrine of Hercules on the Esquiline, mentioned only in Reg. (Reg. V). It was probably near the NYMPHAEUM (q.v.), now called the temple of Minerva Medica, east of the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele. Whether it was a statue or shrine, and whether erected by Sulla in memory of his victory over Marius on the Esquiline or not, is wholly uncertain. (For various explanations, and the relevant literature of the discussion.
 
8 - 16 HERCULES VICTOR, AEDES.
A temple vowed by Lucius Mummius in 145 B.C., and dedicated in 142 by Mummius when censor, if we may accept the evidence of an inscription found on the Caelian behind the Lateran hospital. Another inscription found near SS. Quattro Coronati may refer to this temple which was probably on the Caelian in this vicinity.
 
8 - 17 HERCULES VICTOR (INVICTUS), AEDES.
A round temple of Hercules in the forum Boarium. It was decorated with frescoes  by the poet Pacuvius, and is probably the temple into which neither flies nor dogs were said to enter. The fact that this same story is found in Solinus, who speaks of a consaeptum sacellum, and in Plutarch, makes it somewhat uncertain whether it was told originally of the precinct of the ARA MAXIMA (q.v.), or of this temple.

The passage in Festus has occasioned much discussion. If Scaliger's emendation-ubi Aemiliana aedisest Herculis-is accepted, the natural inference would be that the round temple of Hercules was restored by L. Aemilius Paullus. This emendation, however, is purely conjectural (see PUDICITIA PATRICIA). If Tacitus is referring to this temple, as some believe, it was injured in the fire under Nero, but it must have been restored very soon, and Pacuvius' frescoes must have been preserved.

During the pontificate of Sixtus IV (1471-148 the remains of a round temple near S. Maria in Cosmedin were destroyed, but the building is referred to by archaeologists of the period . A drawing made a little later (1503-151 by Baldassare Peruzzi,2 of the plan and fragments, shows a structure not unlike the existing round temple which is the church of S. Maria del Sole. This temple stood just north of the Piazza di Bocca della Verita, between it and the Piazza dei Cerchi, north-west of the probable site of the ara Maxima. The discovery of the gilded bronze statue of Hercules, of the second century A.D. caused it to be identified with the aedes rotunda of Livy, an identification assisted by the further discovery in the immediate vicinity of a series of dedicatory inscriptions to Hercules Invictus. These inscriptions, however, might belong to the ARA MAXIMA (q.v.).

The relations, topographical and historical, between the different shrines of Hercules in and near the forum Boarium, are by no means clear, and the problems involved have given rise to a considerable literature. (For this temple and for the general subject, see especially De Rossi, Ann.
 
8 - 18 HERMAEUM.
An apartment (diaeta) on the Palatine in which Claudius took refuge, and perhaps the same that occurs on two inscriptions
 
8 - 19 HIPPODROMUS PALATII.
see DOMUS AUGUSTIANA
 
8 - 20 HOLOVITREUM.
The palace (palatium) of Chromatius, probably Agrestius Chromatius, praef. urbi about 248 A.D. The building took its name from its decoration of glass mosaics representing the heavenly bodies, and traces of it were found in 1741 when the church of S. Stefano in Piscinula in the Via dei Banchi vecchi was destroyed.
 
8 - 21 HONOS, AEDES.
The oldest temple of Honos in Rome, just outside the porta Collina, dating from republican times but probably not earlier than the third century. All that is known of it is stated by Cicero, but an archaic inscription, found under the east wing of the Ministero delle Finanze, probably belongs to it, and had not been removed from its original site. A dedication to Virtus may also have been set up in it.
 
8 - 22 HONOS ET VIRTUS, AEDES.
A double temple, of which the original part was built by Q. Fabius Maximus Verrucosus in 234 B.C. after his war with the Ligurians, and dedicated to Honos on 17th July. In 222 B.C., after the battle of Clastidium, M. Claudius Marcellus vowed a temple to Honos et Virtus, a vow which he renewed after the capture of Syracuse, and which he attempted to discharge by re-dedicating the existing temple of Honos to both gods in 208. This was forbidden by the pontiffs, and therefore Marcellus restored the temple of Honos, and built a new part for Virtus, making a double shrine. This was dedicated by his son in 205. It contained many treasures brought by Marcellus from Syracuse, a large part of which had disappeared in Livy's time. It also contained the ancient bronze shrine, supposed to date from the time of Numa, the aedicula Camenarum, which was afterwards placed in the temple of Hercules and the Muses.

This temple was restored by Vespasian and decorated by two Roman artists, Cornelius Pinus and Attius Priscus. It is last mentioned in the fourth century. It stood ad portam Capenam, evidently outside the gate but very near to it, and probably on the north side of the via Appia.

The statement that Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus, censor in 304 B.C. when he established the transvectio equitum, caused the procession of equites to start at the temple of Honos et Virtus, is certainly incorrect in assuming the existence of this temple at that date; nor can its proximity to the temple of MARS EXTRA PORTAM CAPENAM (q.v.) be inferred from the statement of Dionysius that this review of the equites was established in 496 B.C. and began at the temple of Mars.
 
8 - 23 HONOS ET VIRTUS, AEDES.
A temple built by C. Marius from the spoil taken from the Cimbri and Teutones. The architect was C. Mucius, whose work on this temple is praised by Vitruvius, who also uses this temple to illustrate the proper kind of ambulatio around the cella. According to Festus it was on the slope of one of the hills, generally assumed to be the Capitoline. In this temple the senate met to vote on the recall of Cicero from exile. In these passages the temple is called monumentum Marii, which has led some to identify it with the monumenta Mariana of Valerius Maximus.
 
8 - 24 HORA QUIRINI.
see HORTA.
 
8 - 25 HORREA AGRIPPIANA.
Warehouses, presumably built by Agrippa, in Region VIII. Two fragments of the Marble Plan (37, 86) represent the three cohortes of these horrea between the clivus Victoriae and the vicus Tuscus, where excavations since 1904 have disclosed the remains of the largest; and the identification is made certain by the discovery of an altar in situ with an inscription recording the erection of the statue of the Genius Horreorum Agrippianorum. The excavated portion consists of a trapezoidal court surrounded with rectangular chambers of opus quadratum decorated with engaged columns of the Corinthian order of Augustan date. The back wall on the north-east side, originally of opus quadratum, was reconstructed in brickwork by Domitian when he erected the building known as the templum Divi Augusti; and the triangular space between served to conceal the divergent orientation which he introduced into the latter, the horrea having been constructed on the same orientation as the domus Tiberiana. 
 
8 - 26 HORREA AGRIPPINIANA.
Known only from an inscription found at Nomentum, but supposed to belong to Rome. It is quite likely that the name is simply a mistake for Agrippiana. It has also been supposed that they were erected by one of the two Agrippinas. See authorities quoted above.
 
8 - 27 HORREA ANICIANA.
Mentioned in Not. in Region XIII, but Cur. reads Anicetiana, which is probably correct, though HJ 176 prefers Aniciana. Nothing is known of either.
 
8 - 28 HORREA CAESARIS.
Warehouses referred to under this name twice, but probably to be identified with the horrea Galbae.
 
8 - 29 HORREA CANDELARIA.
Apparently a warehouse for wax tapers and similar goods, known only from a fragment of the Marble Plan.
 
8 - 30 HORREA CHARTARIA.
A paper warehouse near the temple of Tellus on the Esquiline.
 
8 - 31 HORREA FAENIANA.
Known only from one inscription, but perhaps named after L. Faenius Rufus, praef. ann. in 55 A.D.
 
8 - 32 HORREA GALBAE.
Warehouses in the district known as PRAEDIA GALBANA (q.v.) between the south-west side of the Aventine and the Tiber. Here was the tomb of Ser. Sulpicius Galba, consul in 144 or 108 B.C., and about that time, or before the end of the republic, the horrea were built and called Sulpicia or Galbae. Other forms of the name are horrea Galbana and Galbiana. They were enlarged or restored by the Emperor Galba and therefore, in later times, their erection seems to have been ascribed to him. These warehouses were not only the earliest of the many in this and other parts of the city, but apparently always the most important, and were depots not only for grain, but for goods of all kinds.

These horrea came under imperial control at the beginning of the principate and provided space for the storage of the annona publica. Their staff of officials was organised in cohortes, and iodalicia. In the sixteenth century excavations were made on this site, and since 1880 the whole district has been laid out with new streets. During this process a large part of the walls and foundations of the horrea were uncovered. Before 191 the principal part excavated was a rectangle on each side of the present Via Bodoni, about 200 metres long and 155 wide, enclosed by a wall and divided symmetrically into sections separated by courts. These courts, three in number, were surrounded by travertine colonnades, through which opened the chambers of the warehouses. More recent excavations3 at various points indicate that the horrea were much larger, extending north-west beyond the present Via Giovanni Branca and as far as the river to the south-west. The construction was mostly in opus reticulatum. Lead pipes with an inscription of Hadrian were found, and a hoard of coins (149-268 A.D.). More recently remains of horrea were found just upstream of the new Ponte Aventino (see EMPORIUM). The descriptions of these horrea by earlier writers, such as Benjamin of Tudela of the twelfth century and Fabretti are of doubtful value, as they probably did not distinguish accurately between the horrea and surrounding buildings, like the EMPORIUM (q.v.). The remains of the ' horrea publica populi Romani' were sufficiently conspicuous to give their name to a mediaeval region; and we have records of three churches called ' in horrea '.
 
8 - 33 HORREA GERMANICIANA.
see HORREA AGRIPPIANA.
 
8 - 34 HORREA LEONIANA.
Known only from the dedication of one inscription- genio horreorum Leonianorum without indication of exact site.
 
8 - 35 HORREA LOLLIANA.
A warehouse on the bank of the Tiber, and probably in Region XIII with the others rather than on the right bank.
 
8 - 36 HORREA NERVAE.
Possibly on the via Ardeatina, mentioned only in one inscription, which may belong to the period of Nerva, and was found outside porta Salaria, but not in situ; see HORREA CAESARIS.
 
8 - 37 HORREA PEDUCEIANA.
Only known from one inscription which Henzen and Dessau restore as horrearius ex horreis Peduceianis, while Hiilsen and others restore it to piarius. EX HORTIS PEDUCEIANIS (q.v.).
 
8 - 38 HORREA PETRONIANA.
Known from two sepulchral inscriptions, one of a slave of Nero, the other erected by one M. Aurelius Xenonianus Aquila, a Bithynian, who had a 'statio' in these horrea; as he calls himself πρ..., they must have been among the marble warehouses (EMPORIUM, MARMORATA).
 
8 - 39 HORREA PIPERATARIA.
A storehouse and bazaar for the sale of pepper and spices from Egypt and Arabia, built by Domitian, burned during the reign of Commodus, and obliterated by the basilica of Maxentius. Some of the brickwork that has been found at various times beneath the basilica and just north of it, may possibly belong to these horrea.
 
8 - 40 HORREA POSTUMIANA.
Known only from the inscription on two bricks, one of which was found at Ostia, so that it is uncertain whether the horrea were there or in Rome.
 
8 - 41 HORREA SEIANA.
Known from inscriptions, and from remains of walls found between the Via Giovanni Branca, the Via Beniamino Franklin and the Tiber. The horrea were therefore south of the Emporium and near the river.
 
8 - 42 HORREA SEMPRONIA.
Mentioned only in Festus (290), where the inference seems to be that these warehouses were established by the Gracchan legislation. If so, they were as old as the horrea Galbae.
 
8 - 43 HORREA SEVERIANA.
Some horrea (?) were found in the south-west corner of the site of the Ministero della Guerra on the Quirinal; on the neck of an amphora was a painted inscription, in which the words usibus cellari Severi (?) occur.
 
8 - 44 HORREA SULPICIA.
see HORREA GALBAE.
 
8 - 45 HORREA Q. TINEI SACERDOTIS.
Known only from one inscription from the church of S. Martino ai Monti on the Esquiline. Tineus was consul in 158 A.D.
 
8 - 46 HORREA UMMID(IANA).
Known only from one inscription that was found during excavations at S. Saba on the Aventine. They belonged to the Ummidii, and were probably near the DOMUS CORNIFICIAE (q.v.), which was the property of the younger sister of Marcus Aurelius, who married M. Ummidius Quadratus.
 
8 - 47 HORREA VESPASIANI.
Mentioned only once (Chron. 146) among the buildings of Domitian.
 
8 - 48 HORREA VOLUSIANA.
Mentioned only in one inscription; see HORTI VOLUSIANI.
 
8 - 49 HORTA.
A temple of a goddess otherwise unknown, which Plutarch says was always kept open. It is not certain that this temple was in Rome, or that Plutarch had not confused the goddess with Hora Quirini. It is also possible that her temple is referred to in the corrupt passage, as Rose, Plutarch, Roman Questions, in loc., conjectures.
 
8 - 50 HORTI ACILIORUM.
Gardens on the Pincian hill which belonged to the Acilii Glabriones in the second century A.D.; their exact limits are not known, but the remains that have been found are held to indicate that they may have extended from the Trinita de' Monti ' beyond the slopes of the hill into the Villa Borghese, and on the east as far as the Porta Pinciana'. These horti belonged to the gens Pincia in the fourth century, and then to Anicia Faltonia Proba and her husband Petronius Probus but became imperial property afterwards (cf. DOMUS PINCIANA). They were enclosed on the north, west and east by supporting walls, built along the slope of the hill; the wall on the east and north was incorporated by Aurelian in his line of defence, and partially rebuilt. The original structure was of opus reticulatum, in a series of lofty arcades with massive intervening piers. The famous Muro Torto is a lower buttress at the north angle in the same material, with tufa quoins. Just north of the Trinita was a great hemicycle, opening towards the west, with flights of steps leading down to the plain below. Beneath the modern casino was a piscina, divided into two sections and connected with a reservoir, consisting of a labyrinth of small galleries hewn in the rock, by tunnels 80 metres long. The mound in the present Villa Medici is built on the ruins of an octagonal nymphaeum, and ruins have been found all along the brow of the hill from the Trinita to S. Maria del Popolo. Remains found a little to the south of the Trinita (BC 1925, 276) may belong either to these horti or to the HORTI LUCULLANI (q.v.).
 
8 - 51 HORTI AGRIPPAE.
Gardens in the campus Martius, near the THERMAE AGRIPPAE (q.v.), which he left by will to the Roman people in B.C.
 
8 - 52 HORTI AGRIPPINAE.
The gardens of the elder Agrippina, on the right bank of the Tiber, which afterwards (33 A.D.) belonged to Caligula. They occupied the present site of S. Peter's, and extended to the Tiber, from which they were separated by a porticus and terrace. Within them Caligula built the circus Gai et Neronis, and it was probably in these gardens, under the name horti Neronis, that the martyrdom of many Christians took place.
 
8 - 53 HORTI ALLI FALETIANI.
Known only from the bare mention in one inscription.
 
8 - 54 HORTI ANNIANI.
Known only from a fifteenth century copy of one inscription.
 
8 - 55 HORTI ANTONII:
see HORTI POMPEIANI.
 
8 - 56 HORTI ANTONIANI.
Gardens on the right bank of the Tiber, near the HORTI CAESARIS (q.v.). Their exact location is unknown.
 
8 - 57 HORTI AQUILI REGULI.
The gardens of the advocate and legacy-hunter, Regulus, on the right bank of the Tiber, which he had adorned with very extensive porticus and his own statues.
 
8 - 58 HORTI ARONIANI.
Somewhere on the right bank of the Tiber, known only from an inscription.
 
8 - 59 HORTI ASIATICI.
see HORTI LUCULL(I)ANI.
 
8 - 60 HORTI ASINIANI.
Gardens at the end of the specus Octavianus, the branch of the Anio Vetus built by Augustus. As this specus has been traced only to the porta Latina, and the regio viae novae of Frontinus, who wrote in the time of Trajan (loc. cit.), cannot refer to the via Nova constructed by Caracalla in front of his thermae, the exact location of the gardens is as uncertain as that of the via Nova (cf. RE vii. 833; viii. 2483; LA 265; DS iii. 279; HJ 189). Nor should the monumenta Asinii Pollionis be identified with these gardens (see BIBLIOTHECA ASINII POLLIONIS).
 
8 - 61 HORTI ATTICIANI.
Mentioned in one inscription, otherwise unknown.
 
8 - 62 HORTI CAESARIS (
The gardens of Julius Caesar that were probably just outside the porta Collina. They are mentioned in the fourth century under date of B.C., and probably by Cassius Dio under date of 47 B.C. They appear to have fallen into the possession of Sallust, and may have formed part of the horti Sallustiani.
 
8 - 63 HORTI CAESARIS (
The gardens of Julius Caesar, on the right bank of the Tiber. Their exact limits are unknown, but they extended from a point near the porta Portuensis southwards along the via Portuensis, and contained the temple of FORS FORTUNA(q.v.), which was one mile from the gate. Caesar entertained Cleopatra in these gardens in 44 B.C., and left them by will to the Roman people. For remains of works of art and buildings found within the area of these gardens,
 
8 - 64 HORTI CALYCLANI.
Gardens on the Esquiline, known only from the inscriptions on two cippi: cippi hi finiunt hortos Calyclan(os) et Taurianos. These cippi were found in situ in 1873-4, just outside the line of the Servian agger, a little north of the Via Principe Amedeo, and the horti Calyclani may have extended from this point eastward towards the porta Tiburtina. There is no explanation known of the name.
 
8 - 65 HORTI CASSIANI.
Mentioned only once with those of Lamia and Drusus. They were probably on the right bank of the Tiber.
 
8 - 66 HORTI CILONIAE FABIAE.
So marked on fragments of the Marble Plan. Cilonia Fabia was the wife of Fabius Cilo, consul in 204 A.D., to whom the DOMUS CILONIS (q.v.), on the Aventine near S. Balbina, belonged. The horti were probably adjacent to the domus
 
8 - 67 HORTI CLODIAE.
Gardens which Clodia owned ad Tiberim, on the right bank of the river. They are mentioned frequently by Cicero.
 
8 - 68 HORTI COMMODIANI.
The gardens of the Emperor Commodus, of unknown location, if indeed they ever existed
 
8 - 69 HORTI COPONIANI.
Probably on the right bank of the Tiber, spoken of by Cicero as villamet veterem et non magnam silvam Nobilem, and therefore in the same class as the estates which he usually calls horti. Wesenberg alters ' silvam ' to ' Silianam ' (see HORTI SILIANI).
 
8 - 70 HORTI COTTAE.
Small gardens situated on the Via Ostiensis.
 
8 - 71 HORTI CRASSIPEDIS.
Gardens belonging to Furius Crassipes, the son-in-law of Cicero. They were situated near the temple of Mars on the via Appia, just outside the line of the later Aurelian wall, probably in the valley of the Almo.
 
8 - 72 HORTI CUSINII.
Probably on the right bank of the Tiber, mentioned twice by Cicero.
 
8 - 73 HORTI DAMASIPPI.
Gardens that were probably on the right bank of the Tiber, as Cicero speaks of them as containing several iugera ' in ripa'.
 
8 - 74 HORTI DOLABELLAE.
The gardens of Gnaeus Dolabella, near the barracks of the imperial bodyguard of German troops. Neither site is known.
 
8 - 75 HORTI DOMITIAE.
Gardens of Domitia, the wife of Domitian, on the right bank of the Tiber. They contained within their limits the mausoleum of Hadrian, and probably extended eastwards to about the middle of the new Palazzo di Giustizia. They continued to be called horti Domitiae as late as the time of Aurelian.
 
8 - 76 HORTI DOMITIAE CALVILLAE.
The gardens of Domitia Lucilla, the mother of Marcus Aurelius, on the Caelian. Calvilla is probably simply a wrong reading for Lucilla.
 
8 - 77 HORTI DOMITIORUM.
see SEPULCRUM DOMITIORUM.
 
8 - 78 HORTI DRUSI.
Somewhere on the right bank of the Tiber, frequently mentioned by Cicero
 
8 - 79 HORTI EPAPHRODITIANI.
Gardens on the Esquiline, of which Frontinus says that they were situated at the point where the Tepula received a supply of water from the Anio novus. This branch conduit probably left the Anio novus at its terminal distributing station, 100 metres south-east of Le Galluzze, and ran directly east to the Tepula, a distance of about 100 metres. The gardens, therefore, probably extended beyond the line of the Tepula. They may have belonged to the freedman Epaphroditus, who was procurator a libellis under Nero and Domitian. See HORTI TORQUATIANI.
 
8 - 80 HORTI FRONTONIS.
Gardens of Fronto which he calls Maecenatiani, but in what precise sense is a matter of conjecture
 
8 - 81 HORTI GALBAE.
The private gardens of the Emperor Galba on the via Aurelia, on the right bank of the Tiber
 
8 - 82 HORTI GETAE.
Somewhere in Region XII. The fact that the district of the Lungara, between the Porta Settimiana and the Porta S. Spirito, was known in the Middle Ages as Septimiana, suggests that possibly Septimus Severus had his gardens here on the slope of the Janiculum, and that these were afterwards called horti Getae.
 
8 - 83 HORTI LAMIANI (
Gardens near those of Maecenas and the city, i.e. just outside its limits. They became imperial property, and Caligula's ashes were deposited here before they were carried to the mausoleum of Augustus. It is quite probable that they were laid out by L. Aelius Lamia, consul in 33 A.D., and left by him to Tiberius. There was a house of the Aelii (v. DOMUS AELIORUM) on the Esquiline, near the gardens of Maecenas, and these horti may have had some connection with that. They seem to have been close to the horti Maiani. These horti Maiani are mentioned in other inscriptions and in Pliny, who tells of the destruction of a colossal painting of Nero, 120 feet high, which had been placed in some building within their limits. The fact that its height was the same as that of the COLOSSUS NERONIS (q.v.) can hardly be fortuitous, and it may have been a representation of the latter.

There are no further indications of the exact site of these gardens, but they are usually located just south-east of the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele, principally because of the discovery here of numerous works of art and a few structural remains.
 
8 - 84 HORTI LAMIANI (: 
Somewhere on the right bank of the Tiber, near those of Drusus.
 
8 - 85 HORTI LARGIANI.
In Region VII (Not.), but whether on the slope of the Pincian or in the campus Martius, is uncertain.
 
8 - 86 HORTI LICINIANI.
Gardens belonging to the Emperor Gallienus. There is no indication of their location unless they bore some relation to the colossus erected by Gallienus  in summo Esquiliarum monte, or to the PALATIUM LICINIANUM (q.v.), near S. Balbina, or to the arcus Gallieni at the porta Esquilina. The nymphaeum on the Esquiline, wrongly called the temple of Minerva Medica, is by some supposed to have belonged to these horti; see NYMPHAEUM. It is conceivable that they were previously called HORTI VOLUSIANI (q.v.), and acquired their name from Ferox Licinianus
 
8 - 87 HORTI LOLLIANI.
Gardens on the Esquiline, on the boundary between Regions IV and VI, as is shown by a terminal cippus that was found at the corner of the Via Principe Amedeo and the Piazza della Terme. These gardens may have belonged to M. Lollius, consul in 21 B.C., or to his daughter, Lollia Paulina, the rival of Agrippina.
 
8 - 88 HORTI LUCULL(I)ANI.
The earliest gardens on the Pincian, laid out by L. Licinius Lucullus about 60 B.C. In 46 A.D. they belonged to Valerius Asiaticus and were called horti Asiatici. Messalina coveted them, forced Valerius to commit suicide, and seized the gardens, and was herself killed in them. Thereafter they were regarded as among the richest of the imperial properties. They were situated immediately above the point where the aqua Virgo emerged from its underground passage through the hill, close to the junction of the present Vie due Macelli and Capo le Case. Their eastern boundary was probably the ancient road that crossed the Pincian from the porta Salutaris, corresponding in general with the via Porta Pinciana; their western boundary was on the slope of the hill above the Due Macelli; while their extent towards the north is unknown. From remarks of ancient writers it is known that these horti were very beautiful, and one of its halls was apparently known as Apollo. Few traces of these buildings have been found; see HORTI ACILIORUM.
 
8 - 89 HORTI MAECENATIS.
Gardens which Maecenas laid out on the Esquiline, on the Servian agger and the adjacent necropolis, thus transforming this unsavoury region into a beautiful promenade. They became imperial property after the death of Maecenas, and Tiberius lived here after his return to Rome in 2 A.D.. Nero connected them with the Palatine by his DOMUS TRANSITORIA (q.v.), and viewed the burning of Rome from the turris Maecenatiana. This turris was probably the molem propinquamnubibus arduis of Horace. These gardens were near those of Lamia, but it is not easy to reconcile the indications of the ancient literature or to determine their exact location. Topographers are not agreed as to whether they lay on both sides of the agger and both north and south of the porta Esquilina. Maecenas is said to have been the first to construct a swimming bath of hot water in Rome, which may have been in the gardens. Whether the horti Maecenatiani of Fronto were the former gardens of Maecenas, or called so for some other reason, is unknown. The domus Frontoniana mentioned in the twelfth century by Magister Gregorius may refer to them. For the description of a building, often thought to be within these horti, see AUDITORIUM MAECENATIS. Many of the puticuli of the ancient necropolis have been found near the north-west corner of the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele, that is, outside the porta Esquilina and agger, and north of the via Tiburtina vetus, and probably the horti extended north from this gate and road on both sides of the agger.
 
8 - 90 HORTI MAIANI.
 
8 - 91 HORTI MARSIANI.
Only known from one inscription, (now in the possession of the American Academy in Rome), which was the boundary stone between them and the HORTI VOLUSIANI (q.v.). At the time it was set up (circa 80-120 A.D.), the Horti Marsiani belonged to one Aithalis Aug.
 
8 - 92 HORTI MESSALAE CORVINI.
Known only from an inscription found in the villa Medici.
 
8 - 93 HORTI NERONIS.
see HORTI AGRIPPINAE.
 
8 - 94 HORTI OTHONIS.
Gardens somewhere on the right bank of the Tiber, but otherwise unknown 
 
8 - 95 HORTI PALLANTIANI.
Gardens on the Esquiline mentioned three times by Frontinus, existing in the fourth century, and supposed to have been laid out by Pallas, the rich freedman of Claudius. According to Frontinus the point where the rivus Herculaneus branched off from the aqua Marcia, about 175 metres south of the porta Tiburtina, and the end of the Claudia and Anio novus, about 250 metres north of the porta Praenestina, were behind these gardens. They must, therefore, have occupied a site very near the middle of the triangle formed by the via Tiburtina vetus, the via Praenestina-Labicana, and the line of the aqua Marcia, i.e. somewhat south of the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele.
 
8 - 96 HORTI C. PASSIENI CRISPI.
A lead pipe bearing his name was found east of the Mausoleum of Hadrian under the Palazzo di Giustizia. He was consul for the second time in 44 A.D.
 
8 - 97 HORTI PEDUCEIANI.
Gardens of unknown location, but perhaps on the Via Latina, and in that case probably outside the city. They may have belonged to M. Peduceius Stloga Priscianus, consul in 163 A.D.; and later they became imperial property. See also HORREA PEDUCEIANA.
 
8 - 98 HORTI POMPEIANI.
Gardens of Pompeius Magnus in the campus Martius. They were given to Antonius by Caesar after Pompeius' death, and were still called Pompeiani in the early empire. Twice in connection with these gardens, horti superiores are spoken of in a way to imply that there were upper and lower parts, and the inference has been drawn that these parts lay at the foot and on the slope of the Pincian respectively. In this case, they must have been entirely on the east side of the via Lata.
 
8 - 99 HORTI POMPONII SECUNDI.
Gardens of unknown location belonging to P. Pomponius Secundus, consul in 44 A.D. 
 
8 - 100 HORTI REGULI.
On the right bank of the Tiber, the property of M. Regulus, the infamous captator and lawyer. They were adorned with very long porticus and many statues of the owner.
 
8 - 101 HORTI SALLUSTIANI.
The gardens of the historian Sallust in Region VI. It is possible that the nucleus of these gardens was the horti that Caesar had owned ad portam Collinam. Sallust spent on them much of the wealth that he had amassed in Numidia, and they probably remained in the family until the time of Tiberius, when they became imperial property, but they seem to have been open to some, if not to the general public. They were a favourite resort of Vespasian and Aurelian. Nerva died here, and they were still a resort in the fourth century. In 4they were sacked by the Goths under Alaric.

In these gardens was a conditorium, or sepulchral vault, and aporticus Miliarensis, built by Aurelian, in which he exercised himself and his horses. Miliarensis should mean a thousand paces long, and a porticus of that length must have run about the gardens in various directions. v. Domaszewski regards this as a mere invention from the similar portico in the domus Aurea. There was also a temple to VENUS HORTORUM SALLUSTIANORUM, of which nothing more is known. In the Acta martyrum there are references to thermae, palatium, forum, tribunal and pyramis Sallustii, names which were probably attached more or less correctly to some of the buildings in these gardens. Of them the pyramis, identical with that of Eins., is the obeliscus that was erected in the post-Augustan age.

The eastern boundary of these horti was probably the via Salaria vetus, and the northern the line afterwards followed by the Aurelian wall from the porta Salaria westward. On the south the boundary must have run along the ridge of the Quirinal, close to theFORTUNAE TRES, between the Servian wall and the vicus portae Collinae. How far the gardens stretched to the west is uncertain, but probably not beyond the Piazza Barberini. This district was called Sallustricum in the Middle Ages.

Within this area many works of art and remains of various structures have been found-a hippodromus  in the valley between the Pincian and Quirinal with walls and terraces extending up the slope of the latter hill, a nymphaeum in the north-east part, and three piscinae. The only ruins now visible are those of a nymphaeum at the end of the via Sallustiana, with an adjacent four-story building.
 
8 - 102 HORTI SCAPULANI.
Somewhere on the right bank of the Tiber.
 
8 - 103 HORTI SCATONIANI.
Known only from one inscription. Scato was a cognomen of some of the Vettii, and these gardens may have had some relation to the DOMUS VETTIORUM.
 
8 - 104 HORTI SCIPIONIS.
Gardens of Scipio Africanus, somewhere in the campus Martius. They are perhaps the same as the villa Scipionis.
 
8 - 105 HORTI SENECAE.
Gardens of the philosopher, of unknown location, but of considerable extent, for Juvenal calls them ' magnos Senecae praedivitis hortos '
 
8 - 106 HORTI SERVILIANI.
Gardens that were probably in the southern part of Region XII. They contained some famous works of art.
 
8 - 107 HORTI SILIANI.
Somewhere on the right bank of the Tiber.
 
8 - 108 HORTI SPEI VETERIS.
Gardens that are mentioned only once. They were on the Esquiline, near the temple of SPES VETUS (q.v.), but are otherwise unknown.
 
8 - 109 HORTI TAURIANI.
Gardens of M. Statilius Taurus, consul in 44 A.D., who was forced to commit suicide in 53 by Agrippina because she coveted them. They were on the Esquiline adjacent to the horti Calyclani. (cf. HORTI CALYCLANI and FORUM TAURI).
 
8 - 110 HORTI TERENTII.
The gardens of the poet Terence, on the via Appia, near the temple of Mars, of twenty iugera in extent.
 
8 - 111 HORTI THRASEAE PAETI.
Mentioned only once, of unknown location.
 
8 - 112 HORTI TORQUATIANI.
Gardens on the Esquiline, of unknown ownership. They are mentioned only once, where the junction of the aqua Appia and the aqua Augusta is said to be ' ad spem veterem ' on the boundary between them and other gardens, the name of which cannot be made out. This place is also called AD GEMELLOS (q.v.), and the horti Torquatiani, therefore, were south of the via Praenestina and west of Spes vetus.

 The supplement Epaphroditianorum is due to Lanciani, and is accepted by Bennett in the Loeb edition. See HORTI EPAPHRODITIANI. Carcopino proposes to read Taurianorum, placing the BASILICA (q.v.) within the limits of these gardens, and pointing out that neither the Horti Epaphroditiani nor the Horti Pallantiani need have come into existence until after the death of Statilius Taurus (53 A.D.), so that the Horti Tauriani may have included the area which they afterwards occupied. He attributes the Horti Torquatiani to D. Iunius Silanus Torquatus, a great- grandson of Augustus, who was forced to commit suicide in 64 A.D.
 
8 - 113 HORTI TREBONII.
Mentioned three times by Cicero, with no indication of situation. They were probably on the right bank of the Tiber.
 
8 - 114 HORTI VARIANI.
Gardens that are mentioned only once, where the context points to a location on the Pincian hill or beyond- unless indeed their invention is due to a misunderstanding of Hist. Aug. Heliogab., where they are treated as identical with the HORTI SPEI VETERIS (q.v.), but wrongly, for a proposed site, partly inside, partly outside the porta Praesnestina; and cf. OBELISCUS ANTINOI.
 
8 - 115 HORTI VETTIANI.
see VETTIUS AGORIUS PRAETEXTATUS, DOMUS.
 
8 - 116 HORTI VOLUSIANI.
Known only from an inscription now in the possession of the American Academy in Rome, a boundary stone between them and the HORTI MARSIANI (q.v.). From it we learn that they belonged to one Ferox Licinianus; and if he is to be identified with (Cn. Pompeius) Ferox Licinianus, who in turn may be the Pompeius mentioned as one of Domitian's courtiers who was invited to the famous conclave on the great fish and the ' Licinus ' mentioned by Sidonius Apollinaris, the inscription would belong to the period circa 80-120 A.D. It is, further, possible that CIL vi. 9973 refers to these hor(ti), and not to the hor(rea) Volusiana. On the other hand a ' vestiarius ' is more appropriate in the latter, and ib. 7289 certainly seems to imply the existence of such horrea.
 
9 I.
9 - 1 IANICULUM.
The long ridge on the right bank of the Tiber, running almost due north from a point opposite the Aventine to what is now called Monte Mario, a distance of about 5 kilometres. This was in the AGER VATICANUS (q.v.), and was sometimes called Mons Vaticanus. It is separated from the plateau behind by a long depression, and is itself not entirely continuous, being partially broken on the south, west and north-west of the Vatican by natural and artificial valleys (BC 1892, 288). The term Ianiculum is now limited to the part of the ridge immediately opposite the city, from the point where it approaches within 100 metres of the river near S. Spirito southwards, a distance of 2 kilometres. The highest point of the ridge in its larger sense is the northern end, Monte Mario, 146 metres above sea-level, and the highest point within the line of the Aurelian wall is west of the present church of S. Pietro in Montorio, 69 metres. At the porta Aurelia (porta S. Pancrazio) it is about 82 metres high, and a short distance farther west about 8The average height of the ridge above the campus Martius is 60-70 metres. This ridge is a marine formation belonging to the Older Pliocene period, and consisting mainly of a bluish grey marl, much used for making bricks and pottery, and of yellow sea sand, of great value for building purposes.

The name was usually explained by the ancients as meaning' the city of Janus'; sometimes, apparently, as the 'gate'. The connection between the hill and Janus was doubtless due to the presence here of a cult of the god, who was afterwards explained as an early king of the district. No trace of this cult existed in historical times, but it may be inferred from that of FONS or FONTUS (q.v.), the reputed son of Janus. According to Pliny, the original name of this settlement was Antipolis (v. PAGUS IANICULENSIS).

Ancus Martius was said to have fortified the Janiculum in order that it might not be occupied by a hostile force, and during the republic a guard was always posted on the hill while the comitia centuriata was meeting in the campus Martius; but there is no evidence of any fortification until the completion of the first permanent bridge over the Tiber, the pons Aemilius, in 142 B.C. Whatever was built then was probably at the top of the ridge, near the porta Aurelia in the line of the later wall of Aurelian, which was brought up to this point from the river for this very reason. It was the first point of attack for Marius and Cinna in the Civil Wars.

For a discussion of the derivation and meaning of Janiculum and of the hill and its fortifications, see Richter. 
 
9 - 2 IANUS.
An arch or gate, intended for a passage way, of which there were many in Rome. The word was also used of one of the passage ways through a double gate. Of these iani in Rome one, Ianus Primus, is mentioned only in one inscription, and its site is unknown, although often supposed to have been in the forum. The second is the well-known Ianus medius which, wherever it occurs in literature, designates the place in the forum where bankers and speculators gathered for business. The scholia on the passage in Horace seem to agree in placing the ianus medius near the basilica Aemilia, although they confuse statues with arches. With this position of the Ianus subsequent topographers have agreed, although they differed as to which end of the basilica should be understood.

A second passage in Horace has complicated the matter. Summus and imus have been brought into connection with medius, and in support of the theory of three iani in the forum at different points, summus, medius and imus, some scholars cite a passage in Livy which states that in the year 174 B.C. the magistrates erected three iani in some colony, presumably in imitation of conditions in the forum at Rome. No hint of any such connection of summus and imus with medius is given by the scholiasts, who agree, however, in placing the two iani in front of the basilica Aemilia, as they did the medius. The Commentator Cruquii gives another explanation of summus ab imo-hoc est omnes Romani a maximoad minimum qui ad Ianum conveniunt hoc prodocent, i.e. aperte dicunt.

There is still a third passage in Horace on which the scholiast (Porphyr.) remarks. This is the only mention of a vicus Ianus, and is evidently due to confusion and an error of interpretation on the part of the scholiast, but nevertheless a theory has been constructed on this basis which identifies this vicus Ianus with a supposed street in front of the basilica Aemilia, on the north side of the area of the forum, corresponding with the continuation of the Sacra via on the south side, and spans this with three arches, Ianus summus medius and imus, from west to east. If there were any sufficient evidence for a vicus Ianus, Ianus summus ab imo might easily be explained as referring to this street, but it is altogether probable that the phrase is a poetical expression meaning ' from one end of the Forum to the other' (Jord.), and cannot be taken as authority for a Ianus summus and a Ianus imus.

It is probable that at the beginning of the Augustan period, Ianus medius was a small single arch, near the basilica Aemilia, but it is not possible to decide whether medius refers to its position in the forum or with respect to other arches. There may have been other iani in the forum, but there are no certain references to them. Those who suppose that such iani stood where other streets entered the forum, look for evidence to the two cases of possible iani on the Rostra relief (see ROSTRA), the remains of an arch of later date across the vicus Iugarius, the presence of such a Ianus near the statue of Vortumnus (see above) in the vicus Tuscus, where traces of an arch are alleged to have been found, and some indications in the scholia. The inconsistencies and errors of the scholia may be due to the changes of the later empire.
 
9 - 3 IANUS, AEDES.
A temple in the forum Holitorium, built by C. Duilius after the victory at Mylae. Its position is defined as ad theatrum Marcelli, iuxtatheatrum Marcelli,  and extra portam Carmentalem (Fest. 285). The day of dedication was the Portunalia, 17th August. The restoration of this temple was begun by Augustus and completed by Tiberius in A.D., but the dedication day of the restored structure was 8th October. According to Pliny Augustus dedicated in this temple a statue to Janus which was brought from Egypt, the work either of Scopas or Praxiteles. It was probably the῾Ερμῆς δικέφαλοςof the former. The statement is made (Fest. 285) that the senate was forbidden to meet in this temple because their decree that the Fabii should go forth to the siege of Veii was made in aede Iani; but this is probably apocryphal, for there is no evidence of an earlier temple of Janus in Rome in which a meeting of the senate could have been held. The structure of Duilius, however, was probably on the site of an earlier shrine.

Under the present church of S. Nicola in Carcere are the ruins of three temples, standing side by side with the same orientation and facing the forum Holitorium. The architectural fragments are of travertine, tufa and peperino (all of which were covered with stucco), except some of marble of the later restorations, and belong to the period of the republic. The central and largest is Ionic, that on the north is next in size and also Ionic, while that on the south is smallest and Doric. The second, on the north, is generally assumed to be the temple of Janus. It is dated by Frank to about 90 B.C. It is hexastyle, peripteral except at the back, and six of its columns, 0.70 metre in diameter, are still standing, built into the wall of the church. The temple in the middle is assigned to Spes, and the smallest to Iuno Sospita. It may be remarked, in regard to the latter's theory, that the order of the last two temples should be reversed, and that, while it may require some explanation that the temple of Janus was not also damaged by the fire of 213, it is even more difficult to suppose that the central temple was fitted in the space between two smaller temples already in existence. In pursuance of this theory, Frank assigns the southern temple in its present form to a restoration of 31 B.C. The central temple he dates about 90 B.C. See Gott. cf. PORTA CARMENTALIS.

It should be noted that the name of the church (in Carcere) was only changed to in Carcere Tulliano in the fourteenth century, owing to an erroneous identification. The career was really that of Byzantine times
 
9 - 4 IANUS, CONCORDIA, SALUS, PAX, STATUAE.
Statues of these four divinities which were worshipped together on 30th March, according to Ovid. Augustus set up silver statues of ῾Υγ... in 11-B.C., probably those to which Ovid refers with the addition of Janus. This ara Pacis is not the famous ara Pacis of Augustus.
 
9 - 5 IANUS CURIATIUS, ARA.
One of the two altars near the Tigillum Sororium. The other was dedicated to Iuno Sororia, and on them expiatory sacrifices had been offered from very early times. These altars belonged originally, in all probability, to the common cult of Janus and Juno at the beginning of the month, but afterwards they were connected with the legend of Horatius and the murder of his sister.
 
9 - 6 IANUS GEMINUS.
A shrine of Janus on the north side of the forum, usually referred to simply as Ianus Geminus or lanus Quirinus, but also as sacellum; sacrarium, and aedes, although it was probably not an aedes. It was also called geminae belli portae, Iani gemini portae, porta Ianualis, porta Iani, and πύ...

Tradition varied as to the date and origin of this shrine. According to one form of the story it was already in existence when the victorious Sabines under Titus Tatius were stopped and driven back by floods of hot water which Janus caused to gush forth from his temple and through the gate of the city sub radicibus collisViminalis. This gate was called the porta Ianualis from this event, and apparently identified or confused with the temple. A variant of this legend made the erection of the shrine a result of the intervention of the god. Another tradition was that Romulus and Tatius built the temple as a sign of the union of the two communities, and still another that it was erected by Numa as an index pacis bellique in order that when open it might indicate that Rome was at war, and when closed that she was at peace. This became the accepted signification of the temple, and after the reign of Numa its doors were closed in 235 after the first Punic war, in 30 B.C. after the battle of Actium, and twice besides by Augustus); and afterwards at more frequent intervals down to the fifth century.

There is no mention of any rebuilding of this temple, and therefore it was probably never moved from its original site, which, according to the practically unanimous testimony of all forms of the tradition, was near the point where the ARGILETUM (q.v.) entered the forum close to the curia. It has generally been supposed that it lay between the curia and the west end of the basilica Aemilia, but the excavations have as yet shown hardly any room here for even so small a building. Varro says that the porta Ianualis was the third gate in the wall of the Palatine city-dicta abIano et ideo positum Iani signum et ius institutum a Pompilio, but it is difficult to see how a gate in the wall of the Palatine city could have been on the north side of the forum valley.

Procopius' description and coins of Nero agree in representing this temple as a small rectangular structure of bronze, with two side walls and double doors at each end. The walls were not so high as the doors, and were surmounted by a grating. These gratings and the arches over the doors supported an entablature of two members extending all around the building, but there was no roof. The ancient bronze statue of the two-faced god stood in the centre of the temple, which was no temple in the ordinary sense but a passage (ianus). No traces of the structure have ever been found, and there is no reference to it after Procopius.

 
9 - 7 IANUS QUADRIFRONS.
The name ordinarily given to a four-way arch of marble, which stands directly over the cloaca Maxima, and probably marked the line of separation between the forum Boarium and the Velabrum. It consists of four piers connected by quadripartite vaulting, and is metres square and high. The arches themselves are 10.60 metres high and 5.70 wide. Round all four sides run two rows of niches for statues, forty-eight in all, of which sixteen are unfinished. The keystones of the arches were sculptured, and the figures of Minerva and Roma are still visible on the north and east sides. The structure is of late date, third or fourth century, and may perhaps be identified with the arcus divi Constantini in Region XI. For a detailed description of this; for illustrations, Baumeister, Denkm.

Hulsen points out that the superstructure, which was removed in 1827 as mediaeval, probably belonged to the attic; and reconstructs it with a pyramid on top.
 
9 - 8 IANUS QUADRIFRONS, TEMPLUM.
Erected by Domitian in the forum Transitorium, in which he placed the four-faced statue that was said to have been brought to Rome from Falerii in 241 B.C. The shrine was square with doors on each side, and the statue of the god was said to look out on four forums, i.e. the fora Romanum, Augustum, Pacis, Transitorium. It is not known whether this four-faced statue from Falerii had anything to do with the Roman Janus or not, or whether it had been housed in a shrine before Domitian's time. It was standing in the sixth century.
 
9 - 9 IANUS QUIRINUS.
see IANUS GEMINUS.
 
9 - 10 ILICIUM.
see ARA IOVIS ELICII.
 
9 - 11 INDULGENTIA.
A temple of Euepyeola on the Capitoline, built by M. Aurelius in 180 A.D.. Εὐ.. is probably to be identified with Indulgentia, i.e. Indulgentia Augusti, whose name appears on coins, and to whom at least one shrine in Africa (Cirta) was dedicated.
 
9 - 12 INSULA.
A house containing a number of apartments. Assigning to one-third of the 44,300  insulae enumerated in Reg 9. an area of 400 square metres each, and 100 each to the rest, we get an average area of 200 square metres per insula, or a total of 8,860,000 square metres; and, adding 500 square metres for each of the 1790 domus, we get a further 895,000 square metres, giving a total of 9,755,000 square metres, out of the total area of 13,868,750 square metres within the area of the Aurelian walls. Calza computes the approximate population of Rome at the time of Constantine at 40 per insula, or roughly 1,800,000.
 
9 - 13 INSULA AESCULAPII.
See INSULA TIBERINA.
 
9 - 14 INSULA BOLANI.
A lodging house belonging to M. Vettius Bolanus, consul before 69 A.D. It was in Region XIV, west of the pons Aemilius, and a little north of the church of S. Cecilia
 
9 - 15 INSULA CUMINIANA.
A lodging house on the Caelian, mentioned only in a late source, but perhaps belonging to the classical period.
 
9 - 16 INSULA FELICLES.
A lodging house in Region IX, and famous for its height. It was probably near the east end of the circus Flaminius.
 
9 - 17 INSULA SERPENTIS EPIDAURI.
See INSULA TIBERINA.
 
9 - 18 INSULA SERTORIANA.
S lodging house known only from one inscription, found in the forum Boarium.
 
9 - 19 INSULA TIBERINA.
The island in the Tiber, included in the fourteenth region of Augustus, and now called isola di S. Bartolomeo. It seems to be the end of the ridge of which the Capitoline hill is a part, and owing perhaps to the harder character of its tufa, the river did not cut it away entirely but divided and flowed on either side. It was often called simply insula, but was also spoken of by different names-insula Tiberina, inter duos pontes, insula Aesculapii, insula serpentis Epidaurii; and in the Middle Ages, insula Lycaonia. It was also called simply insula.

The present length of the island is 269 metres, and its greatest width 67 metres. Tradition held that its nucleus was formed by the grain from the fields of the Tarquins, which was thrown into the Tiber in great quantities after the expulsion of the kings. In 292 B.C. the serpent of Aesculapius, which, with the statue of that god, was being brought to Rome, left the ship and swam ashore on the island. A temple was erected to the god and the island was consecrated as its temenos, although shrines to other divinities (e.g. IUPITER, FAUNUS, TIBERINUS, SEMO SANCUS, q.v.) were afterwards built on it. In consequence of this legend of the serpent the island itself was made to resemble a ship. A stone platform was built round it, and upon this a wall was erected which in shape reproduced exactly the sides of a Roman ship. A considerable part of the travertine stern can still be seen at the east end of the island. An obelisk, fragments of which are in the museum at Naples, is thought to have represented the mast. We are not informed as to the time when this was done, but the remains of the walls point to the same period as that of the construction of the pons Fabricius (62 B.C.) and pons Cestius (70-42 B.C.), and it is possible that the erection of these two bridges was part of the same plan as the building of the ship. Before the building of these stone bridges, the island was doubtless connected with the left bank by a wooden structure at least as early as the time when the cult of Aesculapius was established (cf. Liv. xxxv. 21. 5, where the flood of 193 B.C. is said to have destroyed ' duos pontes ').
 
9 - 20 INSULA VITALIANA
A lodging house on the Esquiline, known only from an inscription painted on a wall
 
9 - 21 INTER FALCARIOS.
Probably a district in Rome, mentioned twice in Cicero, where the scythe-makers had their headquarters, although falcarius is defined in a late gloss as gladiator falcem gerens.
 
9 - 22 INTER FIGULOS.
Perhaps the common designation of a district close to the circus Maximus. 
 
9 - 23 INTER DUOS LUCOS (
A district or street on the Caelian, where the DOMUS TETRICORUM (q.v.) was situated, mentioned only in one passage. This probably corresponded pretty closely with the site of the present SS. Quattro Coronati and the space between it and the via S. Stefano Rotondo unless the domus Tetricorum itself is an invention.
 
9 - 24 INTER DUOS LUCOS (
The name sometimes given to the depression, a locus saeptus, between the Capitolium and the Arx, where Romulus is said to have established the asylum, and where the temple of Veiovis was erected. It seems to have been quite an open area in Cicero's time. Twice only one lucus is spoken of as the site of the asylum.
 
9 - 25 INTER DUOS PONTES.
see INSULA TIBERINA.
 
9 - 26 INTER VITORES.
see CIRCUS MAXIMUS
 
9 - 27 IOVIS COENATIO.
see SICILIA.
 
9 - 28 ISIS, AEDES.
The principal temple of Isis in Rome, situated in the campus Martius, adjoining the temple of Serapis in the same precinct (see below). It is also referred to as fanum, templum, templa, and with the temple of Serapis as Iseum et Serapeum, and τὸ . It stood outside the pomerium in the campus Martius, near the Saepta, and the evidence of fragments of the Marble Plan and sculpture (see below) makes it reasonably certain that it was just west of the Saepta, between it and the temple of Minerva, in the space between the Vie del Seminario, S. Ignazio, del Gesa, and the Palazzo Altieri.

In 43 B.C. the triumvirs voted to erect a temple to Isis and Serapis, but it is not known whether this temple was actually built or not. Tibullus and Ovid speak of a temple or temples of Isis as a conspicuous resort of women, especially of prostitutes, a characteristic also of the later temple. On the other hand, repressive measures against Egyptian cults were carried out by Augustus in 28 B.C., by Agrippa in 2and by Tiberius in 9 A.D., who is even said to have destroyed a temple of Isis and thrown her statue into the Tiber. Between the reign of Tiberius and 65 A.D. the cult of Isis had been officially received in Rome, and this temple in the campus Martius, if not built in the previous century, must have been built then, perhaps by Caligula. It was burned in 80 A.D., restored by Domitian, and by Alexander Severus who added to its treasures of art. In 219-220 the statue of Isis in this temple is said to have turned its face inwards, and there are two other references to it in later literature. Certain inscriptions of the empire also refer without doubt to this temple and it is represented on a coin of Vespasian struck to commemorate the fact that Vespasian and Titus spent the night before the celebration of their triumph for the taking of Jerusalem in  this temple. This coin shows the facade of a narrow peribolos with four Corinthian columns and a round pediment containing the figure of Isis on a dog. Inside the peribolos, and entirely detached from it, is the temple proper.

It is probable that the temple of Isis was north of that of Serapis, and that it was long and narrow and stood at one end of a long and narrow enclosure, resembling in form and architecture the forum Transitorium. Six of its columns have been found in situ. It is not clear whether the entrance was on the north, or on the south toward the Serapeum. The two small obelisks, now in the Viale delle Terme and the Piazza della Minerva, and probably that of the Piazza della Rotonda, were found on the site of the Iseum and may have stood in front of it. The obelisk of the Piazza Navona was probably first set up in the precinct (see OBELISCI ISEI CAMPENSIS).

The Serapeum, although it is not mentioned alone, was a separate building of wholly different style, as is shown by fragments of the Marble Plan. Its south end was formed by a large semi-circular apse, about 60 metres in diameter, in the outer wall of which were several small exedrae. The inner side of this apse was adorned with columns, and a colonnade formed its diameter. Immediately north of the apse was a rectangular area, of the same width as the apse, and about 20 metres deep, with an entrance in the middle of the front and on each side. The plan closely resembled that of the' Canopus ' at Hadrian's Villa.

Numerous works of art were gathered together in this precinct, many of which have been recovered, among them the statues of the Tiber (Louvre), the Nile (Vatican), the Ocean (Naples), and the lions in the Vatican. For statues, columns decorated with reliefs, etc., found here.
 
9 - 29 ISIS.
A temple to which there is only one reference in ancient literature. The third region in the Regionary Catalogue is called Isis et Serapis, and on the Haterii relief is an arch with the inscriptionARCUS AD ISIS (q.v.). This arch is evidently on the via Labicana. From this evidence it is clear that a temple of Isis and Serapis stood in Region III, near the via Labicana, important enough to give its name to the region. It was also called Isium, and was built or restored by some Metellus. There is no indication of the date, but it was probably after the beginning of the empire, and perhaps as late as the second century. In the time of Constantine the name continued. The name of this Isis appears on one inscription that was found in the via Labicana near the baths of Trajan.

The temple was in the south-east part of the region, but its exact site is difficult to determine, for architectural and sculptural remains which may well have belonged to such a shrine have been found scattered over a considerable area of this section, from the via Labicana north to beyond the via Macchiavelli. The most probable site, however, is between S. Clemente and SS. Pietro e Marcellino, near the western end of the latter, where credible authorities state that in 1653 ruins of a temple decorated in Egyptian style were found. This point must then have been just inside the boundary of Region III.
 
9 - 30 ISIS ATHENODORIA.
Mentioned only in the Notitia (Reg. XII), and presumably a statue of Isis by the Greek artist Athenodorus (c. 100 B.C.), which may perhaps have given its name to a shrine in which it was placed. The site of the monument was probably near the baths of Caracalla and the via Appia, but fragments of sculpture found in this vicinity cannot be identified with certainty.
 
9 - 31 ISIS CURIANA.
A possible shrine of Isis built by Q. Curius, the existence of which depends on a conjectural emendation of a corrupt reading- phocis Curiana-in Cicero. If there was a temple of Isis Curiana, it may be referred to in Arnobius and Tertullian.
 
9 - 32 ISIUM METELLINUM.
see ISIS ( in Reg. III.
 
9 - 33 ISIS PATRICIA.
A shrine or statue of Isis in Region V, known only from Not. If it stood in the VICUS PATRICIUS (q.v.) and was in Region V, which is supposed to have been wholly outside the Servian wall, it must have been not far from the porta Viminalis. This would imply that the vicus Patricius extended beyond the line of that wall.
 
9 - 34 ISIS PELAGIA.
A shrine (aedes ?) of Isis, the protectress of sailors, known only from one inscription.
 
9 - 35 AB ISIS ET SERAPIS.
Probably the name of a street leading to the temple of Isis and Serapis in Region III.
 
9 - 36 ISIS ET SERAPIS IN CAPITOLIO.
Shrines of these two divinities, said to have been destroyed by order of the senate in 48 B.C.. Earlier action of a similar kind is recorded, but whether it concerned these particular shrines is uncertain. That temples of Isis were again built on the Capitoline is certain. See OBELISCUS CAPITOLINUS.
 
9 - 37 ISIS ET SERAPIS IN CAMPO.
See ISIS.
 
9 - 38 IULIUS, DIVUS, AEDES.
The temple of the deified Julius Caesar, authorised by the triumvirs in 42 B.C., but apparently built by Augustus alone, and dedicated 18th August, 29 B.C.. The body of Caesar was burnt at the east end of the forum, in front of the Regia, and here an altar was at once erected, and a column of Numidian marble twenty feet high inscribed Parenti Patriae. Column and altar were soon removed by Dolabella, and it was on this site that the temple was afterwards built. From the evidence of coins, the temple was restored by Hadrian, but the existing architectural fragments belong entirely to the original structure. It had the right of asylum, and the Arval Brethren met there in 69 A.D..

A considerable part of the foundations, already uncovered, and the evidence of the coins of Hadrian, enabled Richter in 1889 to reconstruct the temple in its main lines, and additional information was given by the excavations of 1898-1899. The temple consisted of two parts, a rectangular platform 3.5 metres high, 26 wide, and about 30 long; and on this the stylobate proper which rose 2.36 metres above the platform, making the cella floor very high, and was about metres in width. In the middle of the front of the platform is a semi-circular niche 8.3 metres in diameter, of which some of the peperino wall has been left in place, and in this niche is a portion of the concrete core of a round altar standing on the travertine slabs which formed the pavement of the forum when the temple was built. The first altar therefore, which Dolabella destroyed, must have been restored, and preserved in the niche of this platform when the temple itself was built. This platform projected beyond the stylobate on both sides for a distance of 7 metres, and the projection was called rostra aedis divi Iuli because the wall on both sides of the niche was decorated with the beaks of the ships captured at Actium in a style similar to that of the old rostra. From this rostra the emperors seem to have spoken frequently. There is some evidence in support of the view, probable in itself, that Caesar had himself erected a second rostra at the east end of the forum, which was represented by the rostra aedis divi Iuli after the building of the temple.

The temple was Ionic, hexastyle, probably with antae, and pycnostyle, that is, with intercolumnar spaces equal to one and a half diameters. The columns were 1.metres in diameter at the base, and their height was nine times the diameter. The cella occupied the whole width of the temple, about metres. The space between the two middle columns of the pronaos was wider than that between the others, and within the cella, opposite its entrance and this wide intercolumniation, stood a colossal statue  of Caesar with a comet or star on its head, perhaps that referred to by Pliny. In this temple Augustus placed treasures from the spoil that he had taken, and paintings of the Dioscuri, Victoria, and of Venus Anadyomene by Apelles. As this had been injured by dampness, Nero replaced it by one by Dorotheus. Remains of the concrete podium and of the architectural decoration still exist; but the concrete core has been almost entirely stripped of the stone walls by which it was originally enclosed.
 
9 - 39 IUNO CURITIS.
A shrine of some kind in the campus Martius, of which the day of dedication was 7th October. This was probably the Iuno Curitis of Falerii; Fowler, Roman Festivals.
 
9 - 40 IUNO IUGA.
An altar in the VICUS IUGARIUS (q.v.), mentioned only in Festus and Placidus. Despite these statements, it is generally held that the altar was erected there because of a fancied connection.
 
9 - 41 IUNO LUCINA, LUCUS.
See IUNO LUCINA, AEDES.
 
9 - 42 IUNO LUCINA, AEDES.
A temple built in 375 B.C. in a grove (lucus) that had been consecrated to the goddess from very early times. It was on the Cispius, near the sixth shrine of the Argei, probably not far west of S. Prassede and just north-west of the Torre Cantarelli, in which neighbourhood inscrip. tions relating to the cult have been found. The grove probably extended down the slope southwards from the temple, and in 41 B.C. a quaestor, Q. Pedius, either built or restored a wall, which seems to have surrounded both. Servius Tullius is said to have ordered the gifts for new-born children to be placed in the treasury of this temple, so that there may have been a shrine of some sort before that built in 375. In 190 B.C. the temple was struck by lightning, and its gable and doors injured. The annual festival of the Matronalia was celebrated here on Ist March, the day of dedication of the temple. It continued to exist during the empire, as is shown by inscriptions.
 
9 - 43 IUNO MATUTA.
see IUNO SOSPITA (.
 
9 - 44 IUNO MONETA, AEDES.
A temple vowed by M. Furius Camillus during the war with the Aurunci in 345 B.C., erected by duoviri appointed by the senate pro amplitudine populi Romani, and dedicated in 344. It was on the arx, on the site formerly occupied by the house of M. MANLIUS CAPITOLINUS (q.v.), which had been destroyed in 384 B.C.. Titus Tatius is also said to have lived on this site. The temple was dedicated on 1st June, which also mentions a festival on ioth October. In it were kept the libri lintei, and it is mentioned in connection with the prodigia for 196 B.C.. It is altogether probable that this temple of Camillus replaced an earlier cult centre of luno Moneta, to which reference is made by Plutarch, when speaking of the sacred geese that were kept around her temple in 390 B.C.

Various explanations were given by the Roman antiquarians of the epithet Moneta. Cicero says that it was derived from the warning voice of the goddess, heard in the temple on the occasion of an earthquake, ' ut sue plena procuratio fieret.' Suidas (s.v. Μονῆτα） states that during the war with Tarentum the Romans, needing money, obtained it by following the advice of Juno; and that in gratitude they gave her the epithet Moneta and decided to establish the mint in her temple. None of the explanations yet suggested is satisfactory, and even the usual derivation of the word Moneta from moneo is open to doubt. The mint was in the temple during the last centuries of the republic, perhaps established there in 269 when silver coinagewas introduced into Rome, and was called Moneta or ad Monetam. It seems to have been removed at the end of the first century (see Moneta), and nothing further is heard of the temple.

Not a trace of it has been found in the works for the erection of the monument to Victor Emmanuel, and it may have occupied the site of the transepts of the church of S. Maria in Aracoeli. For an antefix from an earlier temple on the site see Cons..
 
9 - 45 IUNO REGINA, TEMPLUM.
A temple on the Aventine vowed by Camillus just before the taking of Veii in 396 B.C. to the Iuno Regina of Veii, and dedicated by him in 392. In this temple was the wooden statue of the goddess brought by Camillus from Veii, and it is mentioned several times in connection with gifts and sacrifices offered in atonement for prodigia. It was restored by Augustus, but is not mentioned afterwards. Two dedicatory inscriptions found near the church of S. Sabina indicate the approximate site of the temple, which corresponds with its place in the lustral procession of 207 B.C., near the upper end of the clivus Publicius. The day of dedication was Ist September.
 
9 - 46 IUNO REGINA, AEDES.
A temple near the circus Flaminius, vowed by the consul M. Aemilius Lepidus in 187 B.C., in his last battle with the Ligures, and dedicated by Aemilius while censor in 179 on 23rd December. A porticus connected this temple with one of Fortuna, perhaps that of FORTUNA EQUESTRIS (q.v.). A probable site for the temple of Juno is just south of the porticus Pompeiana at the west end of the circus Flaminius.
 
9 - 47 IUNO REGINA IN PORTICU OCTAVIAE.
see IUPPITER STATOR IN PORTICU OCTAVIAE.
 
9 - 48 IUNO SORORIA, ARA.
see IANUS CURIATIUS.
 
9 - 49 IUNO SOSPITA, AEDES (.
A temple vowed in 197 B.C. by the consul C. Cornelius Cethegus during the Insubrian war, and dedicated in 194 on 1st February. It is said that L. Julius, consul in 90 B.C., restored a temple of luno Sospita, in consequence of a dream of Caecilia, the daughter of Q. Caecilius Metellus Balearicus, and it is probable that it is this temple of Iuno Sospita in Rome that is meant rather than the more famous one at Lanuvium. It was in the forum Holitorium, and is generally identified with the smallest of the three temples that lie side by side beneath the present church of S. Nicola in Carcere. These temples have the same orientation, and the other two are those of SPESand IANUS (qq.v.). The smallest is of the Doric order, hexastyle, amphiprostyle and peripteral, and built of travertine. Five of its columns with portions of the entablature remain, built into the south wall of the church.
 
9 - 50 IUNO SOSPITA (.
A temple which stood on the Palatine, if the traditional reading of Ovid be preserved:

Nothing further is known of such a temple, and there is some difficulty in explaining why a cult from Lanuvium was admitted within the pomerium at a fairly early date. Ovid may have confused the Magna Mater with the MATER MATUTA (q.v.), and may be referring in this passage to luno Sospita in the forum Holitorium. If this be so, however, that temple could hardly have been restored in 90 B.C., or be that of which the ruins are beneath S. Nicola in Carcere, if it had vanished so completely in Ovid's time.
 
9 - 51 IUPPITER IUNO MINERVA, SACELLUM.
see CAPITOLIUM VETUS.
 
9 - 52 IUPPITER AFRICUS.
a statue on the Capitol, within the area Capitolina, known only from two military diplomas of 76 and 85 A.D., which were fastened to its pedestal 
 
9 - 53 IUPPITER ARBORATOR.
A shrine of some sort of Jupiter, apparently as a protector of trees. It is mentioned only in Not. in Region XI (om. Cur.), and the correctness of the reading has been disputed, but it seems more reasonable to accept it, and to suppose (with Hiilsen) that the shrine stood in the circus Maximus.
 
9 - 54 IUPPITER CONSERVATOR, SACELLUM.
A shrine built by Domitian on the Capitoline, on the site of the house of the porter who had rescued him when the Vitellians stormed the Capitol in 69 A.D. This sacellum contained a marble altar with reliefs representing the rescue, and was built while Vespasian was still emperor. After Domitian became emperor, he erected a large temple to Iuppiter Custos which may have replaced the earlier shrine. In it was a statue of the deity holding the emperor himself in his arms. The temple may be represented in a relief of the period of M. Aurelius, now in the Palazzo dei Conservatori; and the concrete foundation in the Via di Monte Tarpeo may belong to it. JUPITER TONANS, TEMPLUM; Hiilsen in Festschr. 
 
9 - 55 IUPPITER CUSTOS.
see IUPPITER CONSERVATOR.
 
9 - 56 IUPPITER DEPULSOR.
An altar (βωμός) said to have been erected by Claudius on the Capitol.
 
9 - 57 IUPPITER DOLICHENUS, TEMPLUM.
A temple of the Syrian Baal, who was introduced into Rome under the name of Jupiter, and called Dolichenus because the cult came from the city of Doliche in Commagene. It was also called Dolocenum. Its site is indicated very clearly as close to the church of S. Alessio, at the western corner of the Aventine, by the discovery of several inscriptions relating to the building itself and to votive offerings. The date of its erection is uncertain, but probably not earlier than the Antonines.
 
9 - 58 IUPPITER DOLICHENUS.
A shrine of some sort on the Esquiline, known only from four inscriptions found in the neighbourhood of the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele, which indicate that, after being enlarged and re-decorated, it was dedicated on 1st August, 191 A.D. 
 
9 - 59 IUPPITER DOLICHENUS.
A shrine inRegion XIV, known only from two inscriptions .
 
9 - 60 IUPPITER ELICIUS, ARA.
An altar on the Aventine, said to have been built by Numa for the purpose of drawing (elicere) information from Jupiter concerning the proper atonement to be made for prodigia of thunder and lightning. Probably, however, this epithet indicates the god who brings rain from the sky after a drought, a cult connected with the aquaelicium and lapis manalis. If so, the altar may very probably have stood near the REMORIA (q.v.), and the present S. Balbina.
 
9 - 61 IUPPITER FAGUTALIS.
see FAGUTAL, VICUS IOVIS FAGUTALIS.
 
9 - 62 IUPPITER FERETRIUS, AEDES.
A temple, said to have been the first in Rome, on the Capitoline hill, erected and dedicated by Romulus to commemorate his winning of the spolia opima from Acron, king of the Caeninenses, and to serve as a repository for them. Twice afterwards these spoils were said to have been won and placed in this temple-in 428 B.C. when A. Cornelius Cossus slew Lar Tolumnius, the king of Veii, and brought his spoils to Rome, and in 221 by C. Claudius Marcellus, who killed Viridomarus, the Insubrian king. This temple was probably within the later limits of the area Capitolina, and was said to have been enlarged by Ancus it measured not more than feet on the longest sides. A denarius struck by P. Cornelius Lentulus Marcellinus about 44 B.C., represents Marcellus, the conqueror of Viridomarus and Syracuse, standing on the high stylobate of a rectangular tetrastyle temple with the spolia opima in his hand. The columns support an entablature with plain pediment. This undoubtedly represents the actual structure before Augustus, but it had been sadly neglected and had even lost its roof. At the suggestion of Atticus, Augustus restored it, probably about 31 B.C.. To Augustus it seems that the right of depositing spoils that should be regarded as spolia opima was then granted.

Dionysius, writing almost certainly after Augustus' restoration, saysc ἔτι, a statement that seems open to three interpretations, either that the dimensions of the restored temple were the same as those of the original, or that the second was larger and enclosed the earlier, or that the lines of the earlier were simply marked on the floor of the later. The statement of Cassius Dio that Augustus built on the Capitol a temple of MARS ULTOR (q.v.) κατὰ.., refers only to the use of the new temple, not to its form, for it was round.

There is no mention of any statue of the god in this temple but only of a sceptre and flint, an evidence of its early date. Within the temple was an altar, unless this passage may be interpreted as referring simply to the very first shrine.

Various explanations of the epithet feretrius were given by the ancients, who derived it from fero, feretrum, the frame on which the spolia were fixed, or from ferre pacem, or from ferire, either in the sense of striking in battle or striking a victim in making a treaty-foedus ferire, or they regarded it as equivalent to ὑπ.. It is probably connected with ferire, the stroke of ritual as illustrated in foedus ferire, of which the silex in the temple is evidence, and Iuppiter Feretrius was therefore equivalent to Iuppiter Lapis, the latter used as a specially solemn oath-Cic.
 
9 - 63 IUPPITER FULGUR.
A shrine of some sort in the campus Martius, open to the sky, and evidently of early date. Its day of dedication was 7th October.
 
9 - 64 IUPPITER HELIOPOLITANUS, TEMPLUM.
This sanctuary was erected on the Janiculum, on the site of the LUCUS FURRINAE(q.v.), probably in the latter half of the first century A.D. Scanty traces of it have been found. More considerable remains of an edifice erected in 176 A.D. were also discovered, but only about one quarter of it has been cleared. It consisted, like the first, of an open square temenos, oriented on the points of the compass, and divided into four equal compartments by two transverse lines of amphorae; the enclosure wall of the temenos wab also formed, in part, of rows of amphorae which had, as it appears, some unknown ritual significance. Two small rooms (one with arrangements for ritual washing) were also found. Below was a large fishpond. Interesting objects were found in a boundary ditch, which soon served as a favissa. The date is given by the inscriptions. Besides the two cited s.v. LUCUS FURRINAE, there is another altar (of uncertain provenance) dedicated to Iuppiter Heliopolitanus and the Emperor Commodus on 29th November, 186 A.D., by one M. Antonius Gaionas, who is calledCistiber  Augustorum (?), i.e. quinque vir cis Tiberim. He also erected an altar found at Porto.

This Gaionas was already known from his sepulchral inscription, where he is mentioned as κί..

A slab (mensa) with a dedication to Iuppiter Heliopolitanus pro salute et reditu, et Victoria of Marcus Aurelius and Commodus (176 A.D., contemporary with the Antonine column and recording the same victories) erected by the same Gaionas, was found used as building material in the fourth century temple, as well as another undated dedication.

And, agreeably to this, one of the recently discovered inscriptions speaks of him as δει..; see Cumont, who interprets the difficult text δε.., which is carved on a marble slab (with a hole in the centre communicating with a cavity which extends behind the whole slab), by supposing that the slab was placed vertically at the end of a basin, which contained fish to be consumed at the sacred banquets at which he was a steward. Gauckler had indeed already supposed the existence of a large fish-pond below the sanctuary even before the time of Gaionas. The presence of a fine statue of Bacchus and a fragment of a statuette is explained by Cumont to presume the use of wine to the point of intoxication at the sacred banquets (op. cit. 28. A dedication to Iuppiter Maleciabruditanus (i.e. the protecting deity of the city of Jabruda in the Antilebanon) also came to light. Hiilsen, on the other hand, points out that, had the slab stood vertically for a considerable period, the calcareous deposit would have been heavier on the lower half of the slab, instead of being, as it is, equally distributed: and he therefore still explains it as the top of a treasure chest, with a hole for offerings, supposing that it was used in a water tank after the destruction of the sanctuary.

It would appear that the edifice of Gaionas was destroyed in or about 34in consequence of the edicts of Constans and Constantius II, and that a building consisting of porticos surrounding a fountain was erected on its site. The most recent temple was thus, no doubt, erected in the time of Julian the Apostate. The rectangular portico became the court in the centre of the new temple. For the plan of the three superposed temples, see Gauckler, Sanctuaire Syrien.

On the east of it a smaller octagonal enclosure was built, in the centre of which was a triangular mass of masonry-an altar which contained a bronze statuette of a male deity, possibly Chronos, enveloped by a serpent and surrounded by seven hen's eggs. On either side of the enclosure were two smaller chapels.

At the west end of the court was a sanctuary with a plan like that of a basilica-narthex, nave and two aisles. In the apse was the statue of Iuppiter Heliopolitanus, and in the cavity beneath, the upper part of a human cranium, the relic of a dedicatory sacrifice. It has further been noticed by Gauckler that the head of the statue of Bacchus and two other heads had been ' segmented,' i.e. sliced at the crown; but whether this has any ritualistic significance, as Gauckler believed, is doubted by Crawford. Several tombs were also found in the sanctuary, which may have been those of individuals who had been sacrificed.

The objects found have been removed to the Museo delle Terme, but no further work has been undertaken by the Italian Government.
 
9 - 65 IUPPITER INVENTOR, ARA.
An altar at the foot of the Aventine, near the porta Trigemina, said to have been built by Hercules after he had found his stolen cattle and slain Cacus, where Jupiter has no cognomen; 
 
9 - 66 IUPPITER INVICTUS.
see IUPPITER VICTOR.
 
9 - 67 IUPPITER IURARIUS.
Apparently a shrine, known only from a dedicatory inscription made of white stones in a pavement of opus signinum that was found in 1854 under the cloister of S. Giovanni Calibita in the northern part of the island in the Tiber. Iuppiter iurarius seems to be a translation ofΖεῦς πίστιος or ὅρκιος, but whether this was an independent shrine or to be identified with that of some other deity, e.g. SEMO SANCUS (q.v.), is uncertain 
 
9 - 68 IUPPITER LAPIS.
see IUPPITER FERETRIUS.
 
9 - 69 IUPPITER LIBERATOR.
see IUPPITER SOTER.
 
9 - 70 IUPPITER LIBERTAS, AEDES.
A temple on the Aventine, perhaps near that of Iuno Regina and the present church of S. Sabina, originally dedicated on 13th April, restored by Augustus, and re-dedicated on 1st September. Ti. Sempronius, consul in 238 B.C., had built and dedicated a temple of Libertas on the Aventine, out of the proceeds of fines, in which his son placed a painting of the celebration of the victory of Beneventum in 214. Whether this temple is to be identified with that of Iuppiter Libertas is uncertain, but has given rise to much discussion.
 
9 - 71 IUPPITER OPTIMUS MAXIMUS CAPITOLINUS, AEDES.
The great temple on the Capitol, dedicated to Jupiter and his companion deities, Juno and Minerva, the Capitoline Triad. Tarquinius Priscus vowed this temple while battling with the Sabines, and seems to have laid some of its foundations, but a large part of the work was done by Tarquinius Superbus, who is said to have nearly completed it. According to the tradition current in later times, there were shrines of other deities on the site intended for this temple, all of whom allowed themselves to be dispossessed in the proper way except TERMINUS (q.v.) and IUVENTAS (q.v.). These shrines were therefore incorporated in the new temple, and the action of Terminus was regarded as a prophecy of the permanence of the cult and of Rome itself. The dedication of the temple on 13th September was ascribed to the first year of the republic, when this honour fell to Horatius Pulvillus by lot.

The original structure was probably built of the native tufa of the hill, which cropped out at the foot of the Capitoline on the forum side. During the digging for the foundations a caput humanum integra facie was found, and this the Etruscan diviners interpreted as an omen of Rome's sovereignty of the world.

There were three cellae side by side. That in the middle was dedicated to Jupiter and contained a terra cotta statue of the god, with a thunderbolt in his right hand, said to have been the work of Vulca of Veii, the face of which was painted red on festival days. The character of this statue, and of the rest of the decoration of the temple, is clear from the life-size figures, recently discovered at Veii, belonging to a group representing the stealing by Heracles of a stag sacred to Apollo. The chamber on the right was dedicated to Minerva, and that on the left to Juno. Probably there were statues also in these two chambers, and each deity had her own altar. The statue of Jupiter was clothed with a tunic adorned with palm branches and Victories (tunica palmata), and a purple toga embroidered with gold (toga picta, palmata), the costume afterwards worn by Roman generals when celebrating a triumph. The entablature was of wood, and on the apex of the pediment was a terra cotta group, Jupiter in a quadriga, by the same Etruscan artist as the statue in the cella. This was replaced in 296 B.C. by another, probably of bronze. There is no doubt that pediment and roof were decorated with terra cotta figures, among them a statue of Summanus 'in fastigio' (perhaps therefore an acroterion), the head of which was broken off by a thunderbolt in 275 B.C. Van Buren, Terracotta Revetments, 47. In 193 B.C. the aediles M. Aemilius Lepidus and L. Aemilius Paullus placed gilt shields on the pediment.

In 179 B.C. the walls and columns were covered anew with stucco, and a copy of the dedicatory inscription of L. Aemilius Regillus, from the temple of the LARES PERMARINI (q.v.), was placed over the door (ib. 5. A little later a mosaic pavement was laid in the cella, and in 142 the ceiling was gilded. The temple stood in the AREA CAPITOLINA (q.v.), and in front of the steps was the great altar of Jupiter (ara Iovis), where solemn sacrifices were offered at the beginning of the year, at the celebration of triumphs, and on some other occasions. This temple became a repository of works of art of many sorts, the gifts of Roman generals and foreigners, as well as of dedicatory offerings and trophies of victory, of which the earliest recorded was a golden crown presented by the Latins in 459. The number of these became so great that in 179 B.C. it was necessary to remove some of the statues and many of the shields affixed to the columns.

This first temple was burned to the ground on 6th July, 83 B.C., with the statue of Jupiter, and the Sibylline books that had been kept in a stone chest, but the temple treasure was carried in safety to Praeneste by the younger Marius. The rebuilding was taken in hand by Sulla, who is said to have brought the white marble Corinthian columns of the Olympieion in Athens to Rome for this temple. They do not seem to have been used, for coins of 43 B.C. represent those standing as Doric. Most of the rebuilding fell to the lot of Q. Lutatius Catulus, being assigned to him by the senate, and the new structure was dedicated by him in 69. Catulus' name was inscribed above the entrance and remained there until 69 A.D., so that the vote of the senate to substitute Caesar's name, after the dictator's death, was not carried out. This temple was built on the original foundations and plan, except that it was higher, more expensive, and doubtless more splendid. The greater height of the temple was not in harmony with that of the stylobate, and Catulus wished to remedy this fault by lowering the level of the area Capitolina. This, however, could not be done because of the favissae, or underground passages which were entered from the cella of the temple, and in which were stored the old statues that had fallen from the roof, and various dedicatory gifts. The kind of stone employed is not known. The roof was supported by eagles ' vetere ligno ' , and covered with plates of gilt bronze. The denarius referred to above shows Roma standing on shields between two birds, with the wolf and twins on the right, and on the apex a statue of Jupiter in a quadriga. The ancient terra cotta statue of Jupiter seems to have been replaced by one of gold and ivory, in sitting posture, made probably by some Greek artist, perhaps Apollonius, in imitation of that of Zeus at Olympia. Catulus also dedicated a statue to Minerva, infra Capitolium. Whether it belonged to it or to the CAPITOLIUM VETUS (q.v.) cannot be determined.

Lightning frequently struck on the Capitol and did much damage, probably to the temple itself, and Augustus restored it at great expense, probably about 26 B.C., but without placing his own name upon it. It is thrice mentioned in the Acta Lud. Saec. Further injury by lightning is recorded in 9 B.C. and 56 A.D..

In 69 A.D. the second temple, though ungarrisoned and unplundered, was burned when the Capitol was stormed by the Vitellians, and rebuilt by Vespasian on its original lines but with still greater height. Coins of the period agree in representing this temple as hexastyle, with Corinthian columns, and statues of Jupiter, Juno (left), and Minerva (right), in the three central intercolumniations, but they differ in the number and position of the figures surmounting the pediment-quadrigae, eagles, heads of horses, and objects of an uncertain character.

This temple was again burned down in 80 A.D. and restored by Domitian, although the actual work was apparently begun in 80. The dedication probably took place in 82. This structure surpassed the earlier in magnificence. It was hexastyle, of the Corinthian order, and its columns were of white Pentelic marble, a material used in no other Roman building. The doors were plated with gold, and the roof was covered with gilt tiles. The four bronze columns made of the rostra of the ships captured at Antium, which Domitian set up 'in Capitolio', perhaps stood in this temple. The pediment was adorned with reliefs, and its apex and gables with statues, as in the earlier temples, but for them we must depend on the evidence of coins and fragments of reliefs or drawings of the same, as e.g. one in the Louvre from the forum of Trajan, in which the part showing the pediment is lost.

This temple is referred to in glowing terms by Ammianus and Ausonius. Its destruction began in the fifth century when Stilicho carried off the gold plates of the doors. The inscription said to have been found on this occasion was simply a graffito, carelessly read, which is restored by Reinach: Niger, Q. Regii ser(vus).  Gaiseric removed half of the gilt tiles, but in the sixth century it was still one of the wonders of the world. In 57however, Narses appears to have removed the statues, or many of them. The bull of Anacletus I (1130-8) refers to it as templum maius quod respicit super Alafantum (v. ELEPHAS HERBARIUS). The history of its destruction is little known down to the sixteenth century when the Caffarelli built their palace on its ruins.

Excavations and borings, with the information given by Vitruvius and Dionysius, have established the general plan of the temple, which remained the same for the successive rebuildings. The temple was rectangular, almost square, and fronted south, its main axis deviating about 261 degrees to the east of the north and south line. The stylobate seems not to have been a solid mass, but it consisted of parallel walls, 5.60 metres wide, made of tufa blocks laid without mortar and set deep in the ground. Considerable remains of it are visible in the Museo Mussolini, which occupies the former Palazzo Caffarelli. Its height was apparently from 4 to 5 metres. The proportion in width between the central chamber of the cella and those on the sides was as four to three. The length of the shorter sides of the stylobate, derived from actual measurement, exclusive of its outer facing of which nothing is known, was about 55 metres, and that of the longer sides about 60 metres.

Paribeni gives a new plan based on recent excavations in which three angles and parts of the sides were laid bare, and deduces the measurements given above. He points out that if we can suppose that Dionysius (who tells us that the perimeter of the temple was 8 plethra (800 Greek feet), that each side was about 200 feet, and that the difference between length and breadth did not exceed feet) was using the older Greek foot of 296 mm. or thereabouts, corresponding to the Roman foot (the Greek foot of 308 mm. being really the Ptolemaic foot;), we get a measurement of 61.42 by 56.98 metres, which, allowing for the facing, agrees very closely with the measurements given above. If ve supposed the Italic foot to have been used, we should get 59.77 by 55.60 metres, which is rather too small, as nothing is allowed for facing. The podium is that of the original temple. No more of the parallel walls of the stylobate have been found.

The temple was hexastyle, with three rows of columns across the front and a single row on each side, and the intercolumnar spaces corresponded with the different widths of the three adjacent cellae. As the bases of the columns were about 8 feet (2.23 m.) in breadth, the wider intercolumniations measured 40 feet (11.m.) and the narrower 30 feet (8.9 m.). According to these measurements the cella was 100 feet (27.81 m.) square. Of the superstructure only fragments now exist, a drum of a fluted column of Pentelic marble, 2.metres in diameter, part of an Attic base of the same stone, 2.26 metres in breadth, the lower half of a Corinthian capital (NS 1897, 60), although fragments of cornice and frieze with sculptured reliefs are reported to have been found. Cf. DAP 2. for the removal, as it seems, of another column in 1544-6. It is very remarkable that so little of any of the subsequent temples has been found.

This temple was the centre of the religious system of the state during the republic and empire, and possessed great political importance. Here the consuls offered their first public sacrifices, the senate met in solemn assembly, it was the destination of the triumphal procession, and the repository of archives dealing with foreign relations. To the Romans it was the symbol of the sovereignty and power of Rome, and of her immortality. See also AREA CAPITOLINA. Besides the references already given, see, for the temple in general and the voluminous literature relating to it, Richter, Hermes. 
 
9 - 72 IUPPITER PISTOR, ARA.
An altar of white marble (candida), erected to commemorate the trick which the besieged Romans played on the Gauls. They were warned in a dream to throw bread among the besiegers and thereby deceive them as to the amount of food in the hands of the Romans. This altar may have stood on the Capitol, but of that there is no conclusive evidence. Wissowa considers this to be a thunder-god.
 
9 - 73 IUPPITER PROPUGNATOR, AEDES.
A temple on the Palatine, known only from the fragmentary fasti of some collegium, which speak of the meeting-place of the members of this collegium, possibly the sodales Flaviales Titiales, in Palatio in aede Iovis Propugnatoris. These fragments date from 190 to 238 A.D. The identification of this temple with that of Iuppiter Victor is purely conjectural, nor is its exact site determinable by any known evidence.
 
9 - 74 IUPPITER REDUX.
see CASTRA PEREGRINA.
 
9 - 75 IUPPITER SALUTARIS, AEDES.
A temple that is mentioned on one inscription, and probably on another. It may have been the shrine of a collegium funeraticium, dedicated to its tutelary deity, and hence called salutaris.
 
9 - 76 IUPPITER SOTER, ARA.
An altar on the Capitol, mentioned only once. The direct translation of Ζεὺς σωτήπ is thought to be Iuppiter Liberator 
 
9 - 77 IUPPITER STATOR, AEDES.
A temple vowed, according to tradition, by Romulus at the critical moment in the battle between the Romans and the Sabines when the former had been driven across the forum valley to the porta Mugonia. The epithet stator appears in Greek as   (Dionys.) and  (App. Plut.). This temple was never built, but in 294 B.C. the consul, M. Atilius Regulus, made a similar vow under similar circumstances in a battle with the Samnites, and erected the temple immediately afterwards. Livy explains that no actual building had been put up by Romulus, but fanum tantum, id est locus templo effatus-an attempt to reconcile fact with what had evidently become the popular tradition. Its site is variously indicated-in Palatii radice. It is represented on the relief of the Haterii as hexastyle, of the Corinthian order, and facing the clivus Palatinus.

Cicero called the senate together in this temple, which was probably not unusual; and in it was kept what was evidently a bit of liturgy composed by Livius Andronicus. The day of dedication is given by Ovid as 27th January, but this may perhaps be that of a later restoration, and not of Regulus' temple. In fact, we learn from Fast. Ant. ap. NS 192I I, that either this temple or that in the porticus Metelli was dedicated on 5th September; and, as Hemer. Urb. (cited below) associates that temple with that of luno Regina, the reference in Fast. Ant. may be taken to be to the temple now under discussion. Two inscriptions of the later empire probably belong to this temple, and it is mentioned in the fourth century (Not.).

Just east of the arch of Titus, a site corresponding with the literary references, are ruins consisting of a large rectangular platform of concrete, on which are some enormous blocks of peperino and travertine. On this foundation the mediaeval turris Cartularia was built, which was not torn down until 1829. This foundation has generally been identified as that of the temple of Iuppiter Stator of the Flavian period. Some tufa walls, recently excavated close to the north- east side of the arch and beneath its foundations, may have belonged to the temple at an earlier date when its position was slightly different, but the supposition is very doubtful. Others have sought it on the area Palatina, but wrongly.

For a republican inscription on some blocks of tufa there. It bears the names of two Greek artificers Philocrates and Diodes.
 
9 - 78 IUPPITER STATOR, AEDES.
A temple which, with that of Iuno Regina and the enclosing PORTICUS METELLI (q.v.), was built by Q. Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus after his triumph in 146 B.C.. It is referred to as aedes Iovis Metellina and aedes Metelli. It was inside the porticus Metelli, close to the circus Flaminius, and its exact site is known, beneath the church of S. Maria in Campitelli. The temple of Juno was just west of this, on the opposite side of the Via della Tribuna di Campitelli. It is not stated in so many words by Velleius (loc. cit.) that Metellus built both temples, but this is the natural inference from the passage. He is also said to have been the first to build a temple in Rome entirely of marble, and this statement probably applies to both structures. In front of the temples Metellus placed Lysippus' equestrian statues of Alexander's generals, and in them were a number of famous works of art. According to Vitruvius the temple of Jupiter was the work of Hermodorus of Salamis, and was an example of a peripteros with six columns across the front and rear and eleven on the sides. The space between the columns was equal to that between the columns and the wall of the cella. As there were no inscriptions on the temples and evidently representations of a lizard and a frog among the decorations (σαύρα, βάτραχος), the legend arose that the architects were two Spartans, Saurus and Batrachus; and further that, as the decorations in the temple of Jupiter belonged to that of Juno, and vice versa, the statues of the deities had been set up in the wrong cellae by the mistake of the workmen. The idea that an Ionic capital now in S. Lorenzo fuori has anything to do with these temples has generally been abandoned.

After B.C. Augustus either rebuilt the porticus Metelli, or replaced it by the PORTICUS OCTAVIAE (q.v.), and presumably restored the enclosed temples at the same time. That of Jupiter is mentioned on an undated inscription of the empire, and it is included under the rubric Aedes of Region IX in Not. (om. Cur.). The temples are also represented on a fragment (3 of the Marble Plan, that of Juno as hexastyle prostyle, and that of Jupiter as hexastyle and peripteral but with ten columns on a side instead of eleven, as Vitruvius says it had (see above). This discrepancy may perhaps be explained as due to some changes made by Augustus' restoration. Lugli maintains that, like the porticus Octaviae, they were restored by Severus.

The existing ruins of both temples are concealed for the most part by modern houses in the Via di S. Angelo in Pescheria, and consist chiefly of substructures and walls of travertine and of brickwork, with fragments of marble columns and entablature. Three fluted columns of white marble belonging to the temple of Juno, 12.50 metres in height and 1.25 in diameter, with Corinthian capitals and entablature, are visible in No. I of that street. Of the history of these temples after the fourth century, nothing is known 
 
9 - 79 IUPPITER TONANS, AEDES.
A temple on the Capitol, vowed by Augustus in 26 B.C. because of his narrow escape from being struck by lightning during his Cantabrian campaign, and dedicated ist September, 22 B.C..  The name Iuppiter Tonans was a translation of Ζεὺς βροντῶν, which form appears in a Latin transliteration in two inscriptions. It was famous for its magnificence, with walls of solid marble, and contained some notable works of art. Augustus visited this temple frequently, and on one occasion is said to have dreamed that Jupiter complained that the popularity of this new temple had sensibly diminished the number of worshippers in the great temple of the god. Whereupon Augustus replied that Jupiter Tonans was only the doorkeeper of Jupiter Capitolinus, and proceeded to hang bells on the gables of the former to indicate this relationship. This shows that the temple must have stood quite close to the entrance of the area Capitolina, and therefore on the south-east edge of the hill overlooking the forum. It is represented on a coin of Augustus, as hexastyle, with a statue of the god standing erectwith right hand supported by a sceptre, possibly a reproduction of the famous statue of Leochares. The many other references in Latin poetry to Jupiter Tonans do not belong to this temple, but to that of Jupiter Capitolinus.
 
9 - 80 IUPPITER TRAGOEDUS, STATUA.
Specially mentioned with APOLLO SANDALIARIUS (q.v.) among the 'pretiosissimadeorum simulacra' which Augustus dedicated ' vicatim ' (Suet. Aug. 57). Its position is unknown.
 
9 - 81 IUPPITER TUTOR.
See IUPPITER CONSERVATOR, IUPPITER SOTER.
 
9 - 82 IUPPITER VICTOR.
In the battle of Sentinum, 295 B.C., the dictator, Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus, vowed a temple (aedes) to Iuppiter Victor, to whom he afterwards offered the spoils collected from the Samnites in sacrifice. Livy's statement that in 293 L. Papirius, at the battle of Aquilonia, vowed a cup of new wine to luppiter Victor, is sometimes interpreted as meaning that Fabius' temple had been dedicated by that time, but this is quite hypothetical. According to Ovid and Fast. Ant. ap. NS 19292, the day of dedication of the temple (templa) was the Ides of April. Josephus states that after the murder of Caligula in 41 A.D. the consuls summoned the senate εἰς..; and Cassius Dio mentions among the prodigies of 54 A.D. 17 ἡ... These all seem to refer to the same temple, presumably the same aedes Iovis Victoris that is mentioned as standing in Region X in the fourth century in the Notitia. If so, the temple was on the Palatine, but this depends solely on the Notitia where it is maintained to be of very early origin.

Among the prodigies of 42 B.C. the striking of lightning ἐς.. is reported, evidently an altar outside a temple or quite by itself; and in a similar list for the preceding year the same author states Greek. The interpretation of this last passage is not perfectly clear, but it is sometimes regarded as evidence for the existence of a shrine of Iuppiter Victor on the Capitoline, although probably wrongly. An inscription found on the Quirinal attributed  to T. Aebutius Carus, triumvir coloniae deducendae in 183 B.C., is also believed to prove the existence of a shrine of the same god on that hill, but the whole question of the temple or temples of Iuppiter Victor is still unsettled, and the uncertainty is increased by Ovid's statement that on the Ides of June invicto sunt data templa Iovi. Invictus is a less frequent cognomen, occurring in some inscriptions, but is probably an alternative for victor. This temple cannot, in any case, be that referred to by Ovid in the earlier passage (see above). No identification of the Palatine temple with any existing remains is now tenable.
 
9 - 83 IUPPITER ULTOR.
The existence of such a temple depends upon the evidence of coins of Alexander Severus, a which represent what seems to be the facade of a temple between projecting porticus, dedicated IOVI ULTORI. This Bigot places at the east angle of the Palatine, in the vigna Barberini, fronting on the clivus Palatinus, the modern Via di S. Bonaventura. He believes that here Elagabalus built his temple of ELAGABALUS (q.v.), on a terrace erected by Hadrian, which Alexander Severus transformed into a shrine of Juppiter Ultor, and that it was called Pentapylon, because of its appearance; the name occurs in Not. (Reg. X). This hypothesis cannot be said to be convincing, and the difficulty is, that the remains of brick-faced concrete at the edge of the hill belong to the time of Domitian (see ADONAEA, DOMUS AUGUSTIANA), even if we reject Hilsen's placing of the temple of APOLLO PALATINUS (q.v.) on the site. Nor is there any proof that the temple was in Rome.
 
9 - 84 IUPPITER VIMINUS, ARA.
an ancient altar on the Viminal, dedicated to Jupiter as the tutelary divinity of this hill. Nothing more is known of it.
 
9 - 85 IUTURNA, LACUS.
see LACUS IUTURNAE.
 
9 - 86 IUTURNA, TEMPLUM.
The first temple of this goddess in Rome, was built by Q. Lutatius Catulus in the campus Martius. This was probably the victor in the First Punic War rather than the contemporary of Sulla and builder of the Tabularium. The temple stood near the spot where the later aqua Virgo ended, that is, the north side of the Saepta, the modern Piazza di S. Ignazio, and there is not the least possibility that a reminiscence of this cult of the water-goddess may be preserved in the name of the church of S. Maria in Aquiro, a little farther north in the Piazza Capranica. Cicero speaks of gilded statues being set up in this temple and its day of dedication was 11th January. The Volcanalia, 23rd August, were also celebrated in this temple if Hiulsen's restoration of the calendar is correct. The identification of this temple with that of the NYMPHS(q.v.), which was undoubtedly near by, seems to be without proof.
 
9 - 87 IUVENTAS, AEDES.
A temple of Iuventas (Hebe) vowed by M. Livius Salinator on the day of the battle of the Metaurus in 207 B.C., begun by him when censor in 204, and dedicated by C. Licinius Lucullus in 193. It was burned in B.C. and restored by Augustus. It is possible that in later times the Roman youth on assuming the toga virilis made their offerings in this temple, although this custom was assigned by Lucius Piso to Servius Tullius, and the early offerings were made at the shrine of Iuventas on the Capitol. This temple was ' in circo Maximo ' and near that of Summanus, therefore probably on the Aventine side, towards the west end of the circus.
 
9 - 88 IUVENTAS, AEDICULA.
A shrine within the cella of Minerva in the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. According to tradition Iuventas, as well as Terminus, had refused to allow her cult, already established there, to be removed from its site when the temple of Jupiter was built, and therefore it was preserved within that structure. The introduction of Iuventas into this legend that of the founder. is, however, of later date than that of Terminus. In early times the offering made by Roman youths on assuming the toga virilis was probably made in this shrine, a custom afterwards transferred to the temple of IUVENTAS (q.v.) in the circus Maximus.
 
10 L.
10 - 1 LACUS ARETIS
Mentioned only in the inscription of a negotiator aerarius et ferrarius subaede Fortunae, ad lacum Aretis, but it is uncertain which temple this is.
 
10 - 2 LACUS CUNICLI.
A fountain in the campus Martius, known only from one inscription, of 375 A.D., where it is spoken of as' de regione VIII.' Whether ' cuniculus' means a rabbit or is used in the metaphorical, but common, sense of an underground channel, is uncertain.
 
10 - 3 LACUS CURTIUS.
The name attached to a structure in the middle of the forum, of which the remains are now visible. Three explanations of the origin and meaning of this name were current in Rome. One was that at the beginning of the regal period, a chasm suddenly opened in the middle of the forum valley, which could be closed, the soothsayers said, only by the sacrifice of that ' quo plurimum populus Romanus posset.' Thereupon a youth named Curtius leaped in and the opening closed. Another story was that the swamp in the centre of the forum was called lacus Curtius from the Sabine Mettius Curtius who rode his horbe into it when hard pressed by the Romans and escaped. This is the story that is represented on a relief, found in 1553 between the column of Phocas and the temple of Castor and preserved in the Palazzo dei Conservatori (Museo Mussolini), which is itself a late copy of an original of perhaps the second century B.C.. For the inscription on the other side, see TRIBUNAL PRAETORIS. According to the third explanation the lacus was simply a spot of ground that had been struck by lightning and then enclosed by a stone curb, or puteal, by C. Curtius, consul in 445 B.C..

In the time of Augustus the lacus Curtius, siccas qui sustinet aras, was no longer a lacus but dry ground, and into it a small coin was thrown yearly by every Roman in fulfilment of his vows for the emperor's safety. According to Kobbert it is the character of the lacus Curtius as mundus which is primary; but its connection with the underworld made it religiosus, and the coins were probably offerings to the powers of the underworld. Pliny states that an altar that stood near the lacus was removed at the time when Julius Caesar celebrated his last games in the forum, but whether this altar was afterwards restored and was one of the siccae arae of Ovid is unknown.

The existing remains of the lacus consist of two successive layers of slabs of grey cappellaccio and brown Monte Verde tufa, both attributed to the same (the Sullan) period by Van Deman and Frank, forming an irregularly trapezoidal field about metres long and nearly 9 in greatest width, on which is a third layer of blocks of travertine surrounded with a curb. Only part of this layer has been preserved. On its curb are marks that indicate the existence of a screen or balustrade, on which the relief mentioned above may have stood. On the western part of the lacus are traces of rectangular bases which suggest the arae siccae of Ovid, and near the eastern corner is the plinth of what was evidently a puteal, or perhaps a round altar of cappellaccio, standing on a twelve-sided base. The structure in its present shape is clearly a restoration of the earlier lacus, carried out at the time of the Caesarian changes in the forum. For description and discussion of the ruins and lacus in general, see CR 1904, 
 
10 - 4 LACUS ESC(UILINUS ?).
found only on one lead plate
 
10 - 5 LACUS FABRICIUS.
see COMPITUM FABRICIUM.
 
10 - 6 LACUS FAGUTALIS.
see FAGUTAL.
 
10 - 7 LACUS FUNDANI.
A spring on the western slope of the Quirinal, near the Cati fons. It gave its name to the vicus laci Fund(ani), a street that probably corresponded in general with the Via del Quirinale from the Piazza del Quirinale southwards.
 
10 - 8 LACUS GALLINES.
Mentioned with no indication of location on only one inscription of unknown provenance.
 
10 - 9 LACUS GANYMEDIS.
A spring or fountain in the southern part of Region VII (Not. Cur.), otherwise unknown. 
 
10 - 10 LACUS IUTURNAE.
The spring of Juturna in the south corner of the forum, at the foot of the Palatine, where Castor and Pollux were seen to water their horses after the battle of Lake Regillus in 496 B.C.. Because of this appearance the temple of CASTOR AND POLLUX (q.v.) was built on the west side of the spring. The same divinities were also said to have appeared on the same spot after the victory of Pydna in 168 B.C.. The spring, in the shape of a puteal, with Castor and Pollux, is represented on coins of the gens Postumia, of about 90 B.C.. The water nymph Juturna belonged properly to the river Numicius, but was brought to Rome, and became the tutelary deity of those ' qui artificium aqua exercent', and her name was derived from 'iuvare quia laborantes iuvare consuevit' (cf. IUTURNA TEMPLUM), or from Diuturna (the eternal). The water from her spring was regarded as especially wholesome.

This part of the forum was buried deep in rubbish until 1900, when the 'precinct' of Juturna was entirely excavated. The ruins belong principally to the imperial period, but there are some of earlier date. The lacus itself is a basin 2.metres deep, the bottom of which measures 5.by 5.04 metres. In the middle of this basin is a quadrilateral base 1.78 metres high and about 3 long by 2 wide, which probably supported marble statues of the Dioscuri with their horses, remains of which, broken into many fragments, were found (they are probably South Italian works of the fifth century B.C.). The basin is paved with marble slabs, beneath which is a considerable extent of tufa pavement with a different orientation (that of the precinct of Vesta) belonging to the earlier structure, and lying at about o1.90 metres above sea-level. The lower walls of opus reticulatum rise to the same height on three sides as the base just mentioned, which appears to have been the level of the precinct in republican times. On this wall is a ledge about 1.50 metres wide, and round this a later wall of opus incertum, 1.23 metres high, with travertine curbing and indications of a metal balustrade. At the top the basin measures about metres square. The whole inner surface of the basin was lined with marble, and at the north-east and north-west corner of its pavement are the two springs by which it has always been fed. The east side of the basin was entirely changed by being built over in the fourth century, in order, apparently, to provide quarters for the STATIO AQUARUM (q.v.). An altar with representations of the Dioscuri and Helen (as Selene) with Jupiter at one end and Leda on the other, which was found in the basin, is probably Hadrianic. About 4 metres south of the lacus is an altar on which are sculptured a male and female figure (no doubt Juturna taking leave of Turnus) in the style of the time of Severus; a well with marble curb or puteal, on which is an inscription that records a restoration and dedication by M. Barbatius Pollio, probably the partisan of M. Antonius; and an aedicula, consisting of a cella and pronaos, with two marble columns. A statue of the goddess undoubtedly stood in the apse of the aedicula, and a fragment of the epistyle was found near by, inscribed IVTVRNAI S (Klio, loc. cit.). The aedicula of Juturna abuts against a room with an apse of good Hadrianic brickwork, which lies in the axis of the Nova Via. In Christian times it became an oratory of the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste. Cf. HFP 39, and add. to MINERVA, TEMPLUM.

Just east of the lacus, between it and the wall of the atrium Vestae, a ramp ascended from the forum to the Nova via, and the intervening space was occupied by several chambers of later construction, one of which was built out over part of the lacus itself. In these rooms were found fragments of inscriptions relating to the curatores aquarum and the statio aquarum, or headquarters of the water department of Rome. One of these inscriptions, on the pedestal of a statue dedicated to Constantine on Ist March, 328, records the restoration of the statio at that time by the curator aquarum, Fl. Maesius Egnatius Lollianus. It is therefore probable that the statio occupied these rooms as offices in the fourth century, but how much earlier is not known. A statue of Aesculapius, another of Apollo (fifth century B.C.） and other sculptural remains, found in this precinct, lend some support to a theory that in the second and third centuries there was some sort of a sanatorium of Aesculapius established here; and in the early Middle Ages the springs were still used, as is shown by the large number of jugs of the eighth century which have been found.
 
10 - 11 LACUS LONGUS.
Mentioned only in one inscription, otherwise unknown.
 
10 - 12 LACUS MILIARIUS.
see VICUS LACI MILIARII.
 
10 - 13 LACUS ORPHEI.
A fountain, named doubtless from a statue of Orpheus, on the Esquiline in Region V, probably just outside the porta Esquilina. The inhabitants of this district seem to have been called Orfienses in the fourth century; and the name continued in use during the Middle Ages.  The position of the churches makes it impossible to identify it with the 'Trofei di Mario'.
 
10 - 14 LACUS PASTORUM.
A fountain in Region III (Not. Cur.), probably south of the thermae Traianae and east of the Colosseum
 
10 - 15 LACUS PISONIS.
see DOMUS LUCINIANA.
 
10 - 16 LACUS PROMETHEI.
A spring or fountain in Region I (Not. Cur.), probably not far outside the porta Capena.
 
10 - 17 LACUS RESTITUTUS.
see VICUS LACI RESTITUTI.
 
10 - 18 LACUS SERVILIUS.
A fountain in the forum, at the end of the vicus Iugarius and near the basilica Iulia (Fest. 290). The heads of the senators who were murdered in Sulla's proscription were fastened above and around this lacus (Cic. pro Rosc. Am. 89 ; Sen. de prov. iii. 7 ; Firm. Mat. astron. i. 7. 3. A structure in Anio tufa, destroyed by the restoration of the temple of Saturn in 42 B.C. ha. recently been identified with it
 
10 - 19 LACUS TECTUS.
see VICUS LACI TECTI.
 
10 - 20 LAIPS NIGER.
see SEPULCRUM ROMULI.
 
10 - 21 LAPIS MANALIS.
see MANALIS LAPIS.
 
10 - 22 LAPIS PERTUSUS.
In Reg. VII, only known from Not. Cur. It may allude to a cutting through the Pincian hill, possibly that for the conduit of the aqua Virgo; see also HORTI ACILIORUM.
 
10 - 23 LARES, AEDES
A temple of the Lares in summa sacra via, mentioned first in connection with the prodigies of 106 B.C., and by Cicero to locate the fanum Orbonae. It was restored by Augustus. These are the only references that belong indisputably to this temple, and they indicate a site at the top of the Sacra via, that is, near the arch of Titus. In describing the line of the original pomerium, Tacitus gives four points, magna Herculis ara, ara Consi, curiae veteres, sacellum Larum, presumably the four corners of the quadrilateral. Again Ovid, under date of the kalends of May, makes this the day of dedication of an altar of the Lares Praestites: PraestitibusMaiae Laribus videre kalendae / aram constitui signaque parva deum. It was thought that Ovid here and in the passage quoted above might have been referring to the same shrine, and that May Ist was the festival day of the earlier temple, while 27th June was that of Augustus' restoration, a fact that the poet forgot to make plain; but the discovery of Fast. Ant. (which is a calendar earlier than Caesar), makes this hypothesis impossible. It is also possible that the sacellum Larum of Tacitus may be the aedes in summa sacra via, and that for some unknown reason he preferred to mark the pomerium line at this point rather than at the north-west corner. Further complication is introduced into the problem by two marble bases with dedicatory inscriptions: Laribus publicissacrum imp. Caesar Augustus ex stipe quam populus ei contulit k. lanuar. Apsenti: Laribus Aug. sacrum-the first found near the entrance into the forum from the Farnese gardens about 1555, that is, a little north-west of the arch of Titus, a point corresponding to summa sacra via; and the second found in 1879 opposite SS. Cosma e Damiano. Whether either of these bases belongs to the aedes, or to some of the monuments erected throughout the city by Augustus, has been much disputed. If the first does belong to the aedes (Richter 16, it is some evidence for the site of the temple; if not, it has no value either way. The second is of no topographical value.

The relationship of these two or three shrines has given rise to much discussion, but the most probable, although not altogether satisfactory, explanation is that the aedes restored by Augustus in summa sacra via had no connection with the sacellum of Tacitus, which was at the north- west corner of the Palatine and identical with the ara Larum Praestitum of Ovid. It has also been conjectured that the sacellum Larum formed part of the ATRIUM VESTAE.
 
10 - 24 LARES ALITES.
see VICUS LARUM ALITUM.
 
10 - 25 LARES CURIALES.
see VICUS LARUM CURIALIUM.
 
10 - 26 LARES PERMARINI, AEDES
A temple of the Lares who protect sailors, in the campus Martius. It was vowed by the praetor, L. Aemilius Regillus, while engaged in a naval battle with the fleet of Antiochus the Great in 190 B.C., and dedicated by M. Aemilius Lepidus, when censor, on 22nd December, 179. On the doors of the temple was a dedicatory inscription in Saturnian metre. The temple stood 'in porticu Minucia' (Fast. Praen.), and therefore its exact site depends on that of the porticus.
 
10 - 27 LARES QUERQUETULANI, SACELLUM.
a shrine placed by Varro on the Esquiline, although MONS QUERQUETULANUS (q.v.) is said to have been an early name for the Caelian, and the PORTA QUERQUETULANA (q.v.) was probably on that hill. This shrine is otherwise unknown, but was evidently not an aedes sacra but rather one of the shrines erected at the compita
 
10 - 28 LATIARIS COLLIS.
see QUIRINALIS COLLIS.
 
10 - 29 LAVACRUM AGRIPPINAE.
Probably baths, constructed by or named after one of the Agrippinae, but known only from a fifteenth-century copy of an inscription on a lead pipe. Ruins of what may have been this lavacrum were found about 15on the Viminal, near S. Lorenzo in Panisperna. It is not impossible that we should read lavacrum Agrippinae for Agrippae in Hist. Aug. Hadr. 19; this would explain why it is so far from the Pantheon in the list of buildings in Rome restored by Hadrian.
 
10 - 30 LAVACRUM PLAUTI(A)NI.
Baths of unknown location, mentioned only once
 
10 - 31 LAVERNA, ARA, LUCUS.
see PORTA LAVERNALIS.
 
10 - 32 LAUTOLAE.
Explained by Varro as ' ab lavando quod ibi ad Ianum Geminum aquae caldaefuerunt,' who also states that its waters drained into the Velabrum minus. This statement is amplified by Macrobius, who says that Janus caused a flood of hot water to issue from the porta Ianualis to defend the Romans from the advance of the victorious Sabines. For a discussion of its site and the literature of the subject, see IANUS GEMINUS. For the pass of Lautolae near Terracina, see Nissen, Italische Landeskunde
 
10 - 33 LAUTUMIAE.
Quarries on the slope of the Capitoline just above the Carcer, which were also used as a prison. The name came from that of the quarries (λατομία) at Syracuse which were used for a similar purpose. They were also called carceris lautumiae, and it is possible that some unexcavated chambers next to the CARCER (q.v.) may belong to them. The attempt to locate these lautumiae on the Velia must be regarded as abortive
 
10 - 34 LIBER.
A shrine in the imperial gardens (which is not known), mentioned but once and otherwise unknown.
 
10 - 35 LIBER PATER.
see LYAEUS.
 
10 - 36 LIBERTAS (.
see IUPPITER LIBERTAS.
 
10 - 37 LIBERTAS (.
The shrine which Clodius built to Libertas on the site of Cicero's house on the Palatine, which he had destroyed. The temple was taken down when Cicero returned from exile (see DOMUS CICERONIS).
 
10 - 38 LIBERTAS (.
A temple (νεὼς ᾿Ελευθερίας) voted by the senate in 46 B.C. in honour of Caesar, of which nothing more is known.
 
10 - 39 LIBERTAS.
see FORUM TRAIANI.
 
10 - 40 LIBITINA.
see LUCUS LIBITINAE.
 
10 - 41 LITUS ETRUSCUM.
see RIPA VEIENTANA.
 
10 - 42 LORETUM.
An ancient grove of laurels on the Aventine, where Titus Tatius was said to have been buried. There were still trees here in the early empire, but the grove as such had probably made way for an open square out of which ran the two vici- VICUS LORETI MAIORIS and VICUS LORETI MINORIS. The Loretum was near the ARMILUSTRIUM (q.v.), on the north-western part of the Aventine.
 
10 - 43 LORICATA, AD.
see CASTOR, AEDES, TEMPLUM
 
10 - 44 LUCUS ALBIONARUM.
see ALBIONARUM LUCUS.
 
10 - 45 LUCUS (ASYLI).
see INTER DUOS LUCOS.
 
10 - 46 LUCUS BELLONAE.
see BELLONA PULVINENSIS.
 
10 - 47 LUCUS CAMENARUM.
see CAMENAE.
 
10 - 48 LUCUS DEAE DIAE.
see DEA DIA.
 
10 - 49 LUCUS EGERIAE.
see CAMENAE.
 
10 - 50 LUCUS ESQUILINUS.
An ancient grove on the mons Oppius. Originally it probably covered much of the eastern part of this hill as far as the line of the Servian wall, but it must have mostly disappeared by the time of Varro.
 
10 - 51 LUCUS FAGUTALIS.
see FAGUTAL.
 
10 - 52 LUCUS FERONIAE.
A grove, probably adjacent to the shrine of FERONIA (q.v.) in the campus Martius, which is known only from one inscription found in 1905.
 
10 - 53 LUCUS FURRINAE.
A grove on the right bank of the Tiber, on the site now partly occupied by the Villa Sciarra on the Janiculum. It was in this grove that C. Gracchus met a voluntary death in 121 B.C. at the hand of his slave Philocrates to escape his pursuers.

The day of the festival (Furrinalia) was 25th July; but in Varro's time it was already dying out. The excavations of 1906 did not bring to light any remains belonging to the republican period, as had at first been believed.

The real nature of Furrina is uncertain. Gauckler maintained that the use of the word  νύμφαι signified that she had been a goddess of springs, which he believed that he had actually found; Hiilsen's scepticism as to their antiquity seems unjustified.

The connection with the Furies which Cicero, Plutarch and Martianus Capella, where he enumerates FuraFurinaque et mater Mania as divinities of the underworld) all deduce, probably rests on a mere similarity of name. There was also a shrine of Furrina not far from Arpinum, where Satricum is not the better known city in Latium, but another in the Volscian territory.

The inscription cited ap. Gauckler runs as follows. It belongs to the latter half of the second century A.D., and shows that while the old cult of Furrina was not entirely forgotten, another worship, that of Zeus Keraunios or Juppiter Ammon, had been superimposed upon it. CIL, which no doubt came from this same site, is a dedication 'Iovi..,' belonging to the Antonine or Severan period; and to this time belongs the establishment here of the cult of IUPPITER HELIOPOLITANUS. The same is probably the case with ibid. 423, another dedication to Juppiter Heliopolitanus, dating from 238-243 A.D., above which is a relief of Atargatis with two lions.
 
10 - 54 LUCUS IUNONIS LUCINAE.
see IUNO LUCINA.
 
10 - 55 LUCUS LIBITINAE.
A grove sacred to Venus Libitina, probably on the Esquiline, near the porta Esquilina and the early necropolis. This was the headquarters of the undertakers, and here lists of the dead were kept and all provision made for funerals.
 
10 - 56 LUCUS MARTIS.
A grove on the via Appia, probably beside the temple of MARS (q.v.).
 
10 - 57 LUCUS MEFITIS.
see MEFITIS.
 
10 - 58 LUCUS MUSTELLINUS.
see MURUS MUSTELLINUS.
 
10 - 59 LUCUS PETELINUS.
A grove outside the porta Flumentana, where the comitia assembled to try M. Manlius, in order that the people might not be able to see the Capitoline during the trial. It is mentioned again under date of 342 B.C.
 
10 - 60 LUCUS PISONIS.
see DOMUS LUCINIANA.
 
10 - 61 LUCUS POETELIUS.
An ancient grove on the Cispius, mentioned only in connection with the Argei 
 
10 - 62 LUCUS STIMULAE.
A grove sacred to Stimula, a deity who seems afterwards to have been confused with Semele. The grove was the scene of the Bacchanalian orgies in B.C., and lay near the Tiber and the Aventine, probably near the foot of the south-west slope of the hill.
 
10 - 63 LUCUS STRENIAE.
see SACELLUM STRENIAE.
 
10 - 64 LUCUS VESTAE.
see ATRIUM VESTAE.
 
10 - 65 LUDUS AEMILIUS.
A training school for gladiators, which was flanked at least on one side by shops of workers in bronze. Its location is unknown, but it may possibly have been built by the Triumvir Lepidus, or his son. By the fourth century it had been transformed into a bath and was known as the balneum Polycleti. This name may have been given to the whole establishment from some sign representing the famous sculptor, that had been adopted by the bronze workers of the ludus, or it may have been that of the owner of the baths.
 
10 - 66 LUDUS DACICUS.
A training school for gladiators from Dacia, assigned to Region III by the Notitia and toRegion II by the Curiosum. The former is probably correct, and this ludus was doubtless near the Colosseum and the other ludi (LUDUS MATUTINUS).
 
10 - 67 LUDUS GALLICUS.
A training school for Gallic gladiators, in Region II and probably near the Colosseum. (cf. LUDUS MATUTINUS).
 
10 - 68 LUDUS MAGNUS.
To judge from its name, the principal training school for gladiators in Rome. It was in Region III, and is represented on a fragment of the Marble Plan as a rectangular court, about 60 by 90 metres in size, surrounded with small chambers and containing an elliptical enclosure. Other references give no information as to its location, but it was probably one of the four established by Domitian near the Colosseum, perhaps at the beginning of the via Labicana or just east of S. Clemente. 
 
10 - 69 LUDUS MATUTINUS.
A training school for gladiators in Region III , probably near the Colosseum on the via Labicana. This ludus may possibly have been called matutinus because it was established for the training of hunters to fight in the venationes that took place in the morning, but this is by no means certain. It was probably one of the four ludi established by Domitian. 
 
10 - 70 LUNA, AEDES.
A temple on the Aventine, ascribed by tradition to Servius Tullius, but first mentioned in connection with the prodigia of 182 B.C. when a fierce gale tore off one of its doors and carried it to the rear wall of the temple of Ceres. This statement, together with certain details in the accounts of the flight of Gracchus, makes it probable that the temple stood at the extreme northern point of the Aventine, just above the porta Trigemina. It was struck by lightning at the time of Cinna's death; after the destruction of Corinth Mummius dedicated some of the spoils from that city in this temple; it was burned in the great fire of Nero; and is not mentioned afterwards. The day of its dedication was 31st March. The identification of this temple with that of Sol et Luna is untenable.
 
10 - 71 LUNA NOCTILUCA, TEMPLUM.
A shrine on the Palatine which was illuminated at night. Whether the relation between epithet and illumination was that of cause or consequence, is uncertain.
 
10 - 72 LUPANARIA.
The brothels in Region II (Not. Cur.), which seem to have given the name to the district. This was probably on the southern slope of the Caelian, outside the line of the Servian wall and between the macellum magnum and the domus Lateranorum. These establishments were under state control.
 
10 - 73 LUPERCAL.
The cave or grotto at the foot of the Palatine, in which the she-wolf suckled Romulus and Remus; from it issued a spring. This cave, with the FICUS RUMINALIS (q.v.), was undoubtedly at the south-west corner of the hill, very near the point where the clivus Victoriae joins the vicus Tuscus. It seems to have been a sanctuary of some sort, and at least it had a monumental entrance, for its restoration by Augustus is recorded, as well as the erection of a statue to Drusus by decree of the senate, and it is mentioned as existing in the late empire. It gave its name to the Luperci and the Lupercalia.
 
10 - 74 LYAEUS LIBER, BACCHUS, TECTA.
A shrine of Bacchus which, together with one of Cybele (see MAGNA MATER, THOLUS), stood 'in summa Sacra via,' where the clivus Palatinus branched off to ascend the Palatine. In 1899 part of a marble epistyle, belonging to a circular structure about 3.9 metres in diameter, was found in front of the basilica of Constantine. On this is a fragmentary inscription recording a restoration by Antoninus Pius. A coin of that emperor  represents a circular shrine with a statue of Bacchus within its colonnade, which probably records the same restoration.
 
11 M.
11 - 1 MACELLENSES.
A name applied to those who dwelt near the macellum Liviae, found only in one inscription 
 
11 - 2 MACELLUM.
The first of the three macella known to us in Rome, situated just north of the forum. We are told that this market was burned in 2B.C. and rebuilt, but in 179 B.C. M. Fulvius Nobilior seems to have erected a new structure on the north-east side of the basilica Aemilia (which was built by himself and his colleague in the censorship), which absorbed the forum piscarium, the forum cuppedinis, and other special markets that occupied this site. It probably consisted of a central building, which in Varro's time was a tholos in shape, surrounded with shops. The name, like the Greek Jade, is thought to be Semitic in origin, but was variously explained by the Romans. The entrance to the market-house was called fauces macelli, and a short street, the Corneta, led from it to the Sacra via. This market is not mentioned after the beginning of the empire, and its business was probably transferred to the other macella. In any case it must have been removed to make room for the later imperial fora.
 
11 - 3 MACELLUM LIVIAE.
A market on the Esquiline in Region V, built by Augustus and named after his wife, if it is to be identified, as is probable, with τὸ.., which Tiberius dedicated at the beginning of 7 B.C.. A restoration between 364 and 378 by Valentinian, Valens and Gratian is recorded, and either this macellum or the MACELLUM MAGNUM (q.v.) is marked on a fragment ( of the Marble Plan. In the Chronicle of Benedict of Soracte ad ann. The aecclesia Sancti Eusebiiiuxta macellum parvum is mentioned. In the Liber Pontificalis the church of S. Maria Maggiore was described as iuxta macellum Libiae, that of S. Vito as in macello, and in the Ordo Benedicti  is written. Corresponding with these indications ruins have been found just outside the porta Esquilina, north of the road, which may well have been those of this macellum. They consist of an open court, 80 by 25 metres, built of brick and opus reticulatum, and parallel with the line of the Servian wall. This was surrounded with porticus and shops for various kinds of wares. The southern part of this area seems to have been encroached upon by private dwellings as early as the third century
 
11 - 4 MACELLUM MAGNUM.
the market house on the Caelian which Nero built and dedicated in 59 A.D., perhaps on the site of the present church of S. Stefano Rotondo. It is represented on coins of the period as a circular building of two stories, with a central tholos or domed structure surrounded by colonnades. This is generally thought to have been destroyed at some later date and rebuilt at the end of the fourth century for public use, perhaps again as a market. It was transformed into the church of S. Stefano by Pope Simplicius (468-48; and restored with various changes by Theodore I (642-649) and Nicolas V (145. Of the building of Nero the only remaining portions are the travertine foundations, part of the enclosure wall, and eight pilasters of the outer colonnade, but the fourth century structure was built on the original foundations and appears to have preserved in general the form of the original. It consisted of a two-storied circular colonnade, of twenty-two columns, which supported a domed roof. This was surrounded by an outer concentric colonnade of thirty-six columns, also two stories high. Outside of this was an ambulatory metres wide, divided into eight segments by rows of columns. The alternate segments had no outer wall and therefore resembled open courts. The original circular building of Nero was enclosed by a rectangular porticus,2containing shops, of which remains were perhaps still to be seen in the sixteenth century 
 
11 - 5 MAGNA MATER, SACELLUM.
Annually, on 27th March, the sacred black stone of the Magna Mater was brought from her temple on the PALATINE (q.v.) to the brook Almo, the modern Acquataccio, where this crossed the via Appia south of the porta Capena, for the ceremony of lavatio. Although there are numerous references to this ceremony, there is no evidence for the existence of any kind of sacred edifice, and there was probably only a locus sacratus
 
11 - 6 MATER DEUM, AEDES.
A shrine of Cybele in the circus Maximus, mentioned in the Notitia (Reg. X), and by Tertullian. The reliefs representing the circus and a mosaic represent Cybele sitting on a lion on the spina of the circus, just east of its centre.
 
11 - 7 MAGNA MATER, AEDES.
The famous temple on the Palatine erected after 204 B.C. when the Roman embassy brought from Pessinus the pointed black stone (acus) which represented the goddess. It was dedicated on 11th April, 191 B.C., by the praetor M. Junius Brutus, on which occasion the ludi Megalenses were instituted and celebrated in front of the temple. It was burned in 1B.C., when the statue of Quinta Cloelia within it was uninjured, restored by a Metellus, probably the consul of 1B.C., burned again and restored by Augustus in 3 A.D., and was standing unharmed in the fourth century. It is referred to incidentally under date of 38 B.C., by Juvenal as a place of assignation, and in the third century. The stone needle itself is described by a late writer as small and set in a silver statue of the goddess. It was perhaps removed by Elagabalus to his temple (q.v.) on the Palatine.

At the top of the Scalae Caci, on the west corner of the Palatine, are the ruins of an ancient temple near which have been found inscriptions relating to Magna Mater, a portion of a colossal female figure seated on a throne, and a fragment of a base with the paws of lions, the regular attendants of the goddess. These ruins consist of a massive podium made of irregular pieces of tufa and peperino laid in thick mortar, and fragments of columns and entablature. The walls of the podium are 3.84 metres thick (those of the cella were somewhat thinner) on the sides and 5.50 in the rear, but this unusual thickness is due to the fact that the rear wall is double, with an air space, 1.80 metre wide, between the two parts. This wall was faced on the outside with stucco, not with opus quadratum. The total length of the temple was 33.metres and its width 17.10. It was prostyle hexastyle, of the Corinthian order, and was approached by a flight of steps extending entirely across the front. From the rear wall of the cella projects the base of a pedestal on which the stone needle probably stood. The concrete of the podium belongs to the time of Augustus (AJA 1912, 393), and since the remaining architectural fragments are of peperino, it is evident that the restoration of that period was carried out with the material of the original structure. The character of these remains and the inscriptions and objects found here make it extremely probable, to say the least, that this is the temple of Magna Mater, an identification that is strongly supported by the evidence of a coin of the elder Faustina. This represents a temple of the Corinthian order, with curved roof, and a flight of steps on which is a statue of Cybele with a turreted crown enthroned between lions. The temple is also represented in a relief in the Villa Medici, formerly attributed to the Ara Pacis. For the complete description of the ruins and argument for identification.
 
11 - 8 MAGNA MATER, THOLUS.
A round temple, adorned with frescoes, at the top of the Sacra via, where the clivus Palatinus branched off to the south. Its approximate site is also probably indicated by the Haterii relief on which, to the immediate left of the arch of Titus, is a statue of the Magna Mater seated under an arch at the top of a flight of thirteen steps. Spano believes the arch to be a Janus erected at the four cross-roads near the meta sudans-perhaps on or near the site of the arch of Constantine. He does not even quote the passage of Martial is generally supposed to refer to this temple.
 
11 - 9 MAGNA MATER (IN VATICANO).
A shrine on the right bank of the Tiber, near the racecourse of Caligula (Gaianum), known from several inscriptions on fragmentary marble altars, dating from 305 to 390 A.D., all but one of which were found under the favade of S. Peter's in 1609 This shrine is probably the Frigianum (Phrygianum) of the Not. (Reg. XIV). If an inscription on an altar at Lyon of the time of Hadrian refers to this shrine, it would indicate that this was an important cult centre. 
 
11 - 10 MALUM PUNICUM, AD.
The street on the Quirinal in Region VI, in which stood the house where Domitian was born, the site of the later TEMPLUM GENTIS FLAVIAE (q.v.). This street is supposed to have corresponded in general with the Via delle Quattro Fontane 
 
11 - 11 AD MAMMAM.
see DIAETA MAMMAEAE.
 
11 - 12 MANALIS LAPIS.
A phrase subject to two different interpretations, according to Fest. 128. It has been supposed that the reference is to the stone which closed the entrance to the lower part of the mundus, but this is only a conjecture. This was obviously a rough mass of stone, which was used when prayers for rain were made; see IUPPITER ELICIUS.
 
11 - 13 MANCINA TIFATA.
see TIFATA MANCINA.
 
11 - 14 MANSIONES SALIORUM PALATINORUM.
Apparently shrines in different parts of the city at which the Salii halted in their annual procession, known to us only from one inscription on the marble facing of the temple of Mars Ultor in the forum of Augustus, which records a restoration of these mansiones in or after 382 A.D.. From this inscription and a reference to a dinner of the Salii in the temple of Mars it is clear that one of these mansiones was in this temple.
 
11 - 15 MANSUETAE.
A locality in Region VII (Not. Cur.), otherwise unknown. The name suggests a group of statues representing tamed animals with 'ferae' as a correlative (Eranos 1923, 49; see HECATOSTYLON).
 
11 - 16 MAPPA AUREA.
Mentioned in Not. in Region XIII, and on a slave's collar. Whether this was a vicus or a building is uncertain. The name suggests the mappa with which the praetor gave the signal for the beginning of the games in the circus, and this street or building was probably near or overlooking the carceres of the circus Maximus
 
11 - 17 DIVUS MARCUS, TEMPLUM.
A temple of Marcus Aurelius which probably stood just west of his column (q.v.), in the same relation to it as the temple of Trajan to his column. It was erected to the deified emperor by the senate (Hist. Aug. Marc. 18; Aur. Vict. Caes. 16; Ep. 16), and is mentioned only once afterwards
 
11 - 18 MARMORATA.
The modern name for the wharf where marble was landed, downstream of the west side of the Aventine (see EMPORIUM). A bull of 926 mentions an oratorium S. Gimiliani . . . in regione prima ... in ripa Graeca iuxta marmorata suprafluvium Tiberis, which recurs in the twelfth century, but had already disappeared in the sixteenth. It was probably in the southern part of the regio Marmoratae towards the horrea. Until lately numerous blocks of marble were still to be seen there; but this regio did not correspond with the locality now called Marmorata, which was included in the mediaeval regio horrea, but lay further upstream under the west angle of the Aventine adjacent to the regio schole Grece.
 
11 - 19 MARS.
A shrine on the Capitol, according to Augustine, who adds Mars to Terminus and Iuventas, the gods who refused to be moved to make room for the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. It is possible that this temple may be referred to by Cassius Dio. See AREA CAPITOLINA.
 
11 - 20 MARS, AEDES.
A temple on the (north) left side of the via Appia, between the first and second milestones. There is a distinct rise in the road leading to it, the CLIVUS MARTIS (q.v.). The site is 2 kilometres from the porta Capena and just outside the porta Appia of the Aurelian wall. Beside it was a grove.

The date of the foundation of this temple is not known, unless, as seems probable, Livy's statement under 388 B.C. refers to this temple and not to that in the campus Martius (see MARS, ARA). The day of dedication was 1st June. The temple is mentioned frequently, and the district around it, even as far as the Almo, was known as ad Martis. The troops assembled here when setting out for war, and the transvectio equitum began here. In it was a statue of Mars and figures of wolves, and near by was the MANALIS LAPIS ( (q.v.). There are no certain remains of this temple, but some inscriptions relating to it have been found in the immediate vicinity. In 189 B.C. the via Appia was paved from the porta Capena to this point, and the road was then known as the VIA TECTA (q.v.), no doubt from the construction of a portico along it.
 
11 - 21 MARTIS LUCUS.
see above.
 
11 - 22 MARS, AEDES.
A temple in circo Flaminio, built for D. Junius Brutus Callaicus in 138 B.C. by the architect Hermodorus of Salamis. In the vestibule were inscribed some lines of the poet Accius in Saturnian metre. The temple contained a colossal statue of Mars by Scopas, and a Venus by the same artist that was said to excel that of Praxiteles. Its exact site is unknown, but it has been located by some south of the theatre of Pompeius, by others identified in a fragment of the Marble Plan, which represents remains that exist under S. Nicola ai Cesarini.
 
11 - 23 MARTIS LUCUS.
see above.
 
11 - 24 MARS, AEDES.
A temple in circo Flaminio, built for D. Junius Brutus Callaicus in 138 B.C. by the architect Hermodorus of Salamis. In the vestibule were inscribed some lines of the poet Accius in Saturnian metre. The temple contained a colossal statue of Mars by Scopas, and a Venus by the same artist that was said to excel that of Praxiteles. Its exact site is unknown, but it has been located by some south of the theatre of Pompeius, by others identified in a fragment of the Marble Plan, which represents remains that exist under S. Nicola ai Cesarini.
 
11 - 25 MARS, ARA.
The ancient altar, which was the earliest cult centre of Mars in the campus Martius, mentioned first in what purports to be a citation from the leges regiae of Numa. Its erection belonged undoubtedly to the early regal period. In 193 B.C. a porticus was built from the PORTA FONTINALIS (q.v.) to this altar, and it was customary for the censors to place their curule chairs near it after the elections (179 B.C.) These are the only passages in which the ara is expressly mentioned, and indicate a site not too far from the porta Fontinalis-probably on the north-east side of the Capitoline hill-to be reached by a porticus of that early date, and relatively near the place of holding the comitia.

Two other passages mention a templum or ναός of Mars in the campus Martius, one referring to an occurrence of 9 A.D., and the other a little later. A line in Ovid also seems to refer to a statue of the god looking out from a shrine. Whether Livy's statement  (388 B.C.) refers to such a temple or to the temple of Mars outside the porta Capena is uncertain.

There are two views as to the relation and site of altar and temple- one that the original ara was situated just east of the site of the existing Pantheon, in the Via del Seminario, and that a shrine was afterwards built close to it, making one cult centre; the other that the ara was near the present Piazza del Gesu, and the temple much further north, perhaps halfway between Montecitorio and the Piazza Borghese.

Anti maintains that the well-known frieze in Paris and Munich, generally supposed to have been set up by Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus near the circus Flaminius, really belongs to a monument dedicated at this altar by a censor who had special reasons for devotion to Neptune-therefore, probably, P. Servilius Isauricus, who triumphed over the Cilician pirates in 74 B.C., and as censor in 55-54 B.C. carried out a new terminatio of the banks of the TIBER.
 
11 - 26 MARS INVICTUS
This temple is only mentioned in Fast. Ant. and Fast. Ven. Nothing more is known about it.
 
11 - 27 MARS, TEMPLUM.
A shrine in the Castra Praetoria, of which nothing more is known.
 
11 - 28 MARS ULTOR, AEDES.
Aee FORUM AUGSTUM.
 
11 - 29 MARS ULTOR, TEMPLUM.
A temple erected by Augustus on the Capitol, and dedicated 12th May, 20 B.C., as a repository for the Roman standards that had been recovered from the Parthians. The statement in the Monumentum Ancyranum is generally taken to refer to the temple in the forum of Augustus, and, if so, the standards must have been kept in this temple on the Capitol until the dedication of the other in 2 B.C.. The temple is represented on coins of Augustus as a circular domed structure on a high podium with four or six columns, within which is either a figure of Hermes holding the standards, or the standards without the figure. 
 
11 - 30 MARTIS SACRARIUM.
see REGIA.
 
11 - 31 MARSYAS.
see STATUA MARSYAE.
 
11 - 32 MATER MATUTA, AEDES.
A temple in the forum Boarium, just inside the porta Carmentalis, ascribed by tradition to Servius Tullius, restored and dedicated by Camillus in 395 B.C.; it was burned in 213, and restored the next year by triumvirs appointed for the purpose, together with the temple of Fortuna. In 196 B.C. two arches with gilded statues were set up by L. Stertinius in front of the temples of Mater Matuta and Fortuna, and if, as is probable, these arches were part of a colonnade surrounding them both, the temples must have been near together and perhaps had the same orientation. In the temple of Matuta Ti. Sempronius Gracchus placed a bronze tablet, on which was a record of his campaigns in Sardinia and a map of the island. The day of dedication was that of the Matralia, Ith June.

On the north side of the modern Piazza della Bocca della Verita, a site corresponding to that indicated by the evidence of literature, is an ancient temple converted into the church of S. Maria Egiziaca in 872. The temple is Ionic, 20 metres long and wide, with north-south orientation parallel to the Tiber, tetrastyle prostyle, and stands on a podium 2.50 metres in height and originally 26 metres long. It was pseudo-peripteral, with five engaged columns in the side walls of the cella and a pronaos. The two free columns of the pronaos were walled up to increase the size of the church ; but the temple has recently been isolated and all modern accretions have been removed. The cella walls and engaged columns, except those at the angles, are of tufa; the columns of the pronaos, the capitals of all the columns, the architrave and cornice, and the facing of the podium, of travertine. The frieze was decorated with ox-skulls and garlands, but most of this decoration has disappeared. The temple faced toward the street leading up from the pons Aemilius, and not toward the forum Boarium proper. This has sometimes been identified with the temple of Fortuna, but it is more probable that it is that of Mater Matuta. If this is correct, the temple must have been restored about the middle of the first century B.C., to which period the construction seems to point. See MOLINAE.
 
11 - 33 MATIDIA, ARA.
An altar of diva Matidia, the mother-in-law of Hadrian, which is mentioned on one inscription, but is otherwise unknown.
 
11 - 34 MATIDIA, TEMPLUM.
A temple of the deified Matidia, the mother-in-law of Hadrian (cf. MATIDIA, ARA), known from the inscription on a fragment of lead pipe found between S. Ignazio and the Collegio Germanico Ungarico, and a coin of Hadrian. North-east of the Pantheon, in the Vicolo della Spada d'Orlando, between the Via dei Pastini and the Piazza Capranica, five columns of cipollino have been found-one still visible and two built into a wall-which may perhaps have belonged to this temple. They are 1.70 metres in diameter, and the indications point to an octostyle structure, about 36 metres wide, that faced north on what is now the Piazza Capranica. On each side of the area in front of the temple, the BASILICAE MATIDIA ET MARCIANA (q.v.) may have stood, if the evidence of the coin is accepted, one of them cutting across the site now occupied by the church of S. Maria in Aquiro.
 
11 - 35 MAUSOLEA AUGUSTORUM.
see SEPULCRUM MARIAE STILICHONIS.
 
11 - 36 MAUSOLEUM AUGUSTI.
The mausoleum erected, as a dynastic rather than as a personal monument, by Augustus for himself, his family, and his successors in the northern part of the campus Martius, between the via Flaminia and the Tiber, as early as 28 B.C.. It was thus the first building which he erected in the Campus Martius, and characterises his conception of the principate.

From these passages and from the existing remains we may gather that it consisted of a large circular drum, faced with travertine, or, as some think, marble; this was 87 metres in external diameter at the base. Above it rose an upper arcade, traces of which may be seen in all the sixteenth century views, and there were probably other tiers above, planted with evergreen trees, while at the summit was a bronze statue of Augustus. The entrance was on the south, with a small chamber over it, lighted by a window; and the passage way, 3.5 metres wide, led through a double ring of (originally) closed chambers to a wall in which there were two doorways, one on each side of the mass of concrete in front of the passage way. This wall runs right up, and its inner face is visible in the corridor surrounding the present concert hall: and it formed the enclosing wall of the Renaissance garden (see below). Within it, at a lower level, were two, or perhaps three, concentric corridors: but the vaults in this area have collapsed, and the whole has been used as a lime kiln in the Middle Ages; so that the urns and inscriptions which have been found here were not in situ. In the centre is a square space, probably originally filled with masonry as a support for the statue of Augustus.

Between the outermost concentric wall and the next is a series of twelve large chambers, which were probably entirely inaccessible in ancient times. The outermost wall preserved to any considerable height has twelve semi- circular niches, not intended for decoration, but as supports for the external skin wall of travertine. In the centre of each niche is a chord wall, probably intended to break up the mass of earth with which the niche was filled, and prevent its swelling and causing collapse. There is no trace of a square foundation, and the mausoleum probably resembled one of the sepulchral mound tombs of Caere, in Southern Etruria; though it must have risen in several tiers, and the mound of earth at the top must therefore have been comparatively small. On pillars  standing free, rather than on the outer wall of the mausoleum, on each side of the entrance, were fastened the two bronze tablets on which were inscribed the Res Gestae Divi Augusti (often known as the Monumentum Ancyranum, because the most complete copy of it is preserved on the walls of the temple of Augustus at Ancyra, the modern Angora). Gardthausen's idea that these tablets were placed upon the external buttresses of the mausoleum itself is most infelicitous ; and his article, while containing valuable information, is in most details misleading. Thus, the unit of measurement used in P. A. Bufalini's plan is not the span (=25 cm.), but the palm (=223 mm.). In front of the entrance stood two obelisks (see OBELISCI MAUSOLEI AUGUSTI); and the mausoleum was surrounded by a spacious park planted with trees and laid out with walks.

The first individual whose ashes were placed in the mausoleum was Augustus' heir designate Marcellus, who died in 23 B.C., then Agrippa in B.C., and Drusus in 9 B.C.. The remains of the two grandsons of Augustus, who had also been designated as his heirs, Lucius (2 A.D.) and Gaius (4 A.D.), were also placed here, though perhaps in a separate monument, or perhaps only in a separate chamber. See SEP. C. ET L. CAESARIS.

In A.D. Augustus' own ashes were placed here. He had in his will excluded his daughter Julia and her daughter from burial in his mausoleum. Hirschfeld seems to lay too much stress on the statement in the Mirabilia that there was an apse in the centre of the mausoleum, in which there had been a seated statue of Augustus. Next followed (soon after 19) Germanicus. For his children, see USTRINUM DOMUS AUGUSTAE. Livia's ashes were placed here in 29 A.D. and eight years later those of Tiberius. His successor Caligula, whose mother Agrippina and brothers Nero and Drusus had died-the first two in exile, the last in the cellars of the Palatine-collected their remains and placed them here. The block of marble which bears the inscription in honour of Agrippina, and once contained an urn of more precious material in which her cremated remains (ossa) were placed, is still preserved in the Palazzo dei Conservatori, while a block with the inscription of the elder Nero only disappeared after the sixteenth century. The mention of both brothers in the passages quoted above would certainly lead one to believe that the younger Drusus' remains were similarly treated.

Hirschfeld thinks that Caligula's sister Drusilla was also placed here, but there is no direct evidence-no more than there is in the case of Claudius, Britannicus, and Vespasian. The door of the mausoleum suddenly sprang open shortly before the death of the last-named, but he declared that the portent did not concern him. See also GENS FLAVIA, TEMPLUM. The fragmentary inscription VESPASIANI  cannot refer to the emperor, and may belong to the son of Flavius Clemens. Tacitus' reference to Nero's second wife Poppaea Sabina, corpus . .. tumulo Iuliorum infertur, is generally connected with the mausoleum, and can hardly belong to the TUMULUS IULIAE (q.v.). Nerva, on the other hand, was certainly buried here, and it is even possible that the author of the Mirabilia (cit. supr.) actually saw his sepulchral inscription, as Hirschfeld believes, or at least the inscription on the base of his statue, which has recently come to light.

Trajan's ashes, as is well known, were placed in the chamber at the foot of his column; while Hadrian, we are expressly told ἐτάφη... It had indeed, as we know from an inscription of a freedman of Trajan, for some years been under the charge of an imperial procurator. It was only opened on one other occasion-when the body of Julia Domna was temporarily placed there (see above).

The obelisks are mentioned by Ammianus Marcellinus, and in the Breviarium of Not. and Cur.; but it is surprising that the mausoleum as a whole is not enumerated in the text among the monuments of Regio IX. The story of its plundering by Alaric in 4has no historical foundation, and we know nothing of its destruction. During the whole of the Middle Ages it kept its name-Mons Augustus in 955-962; while the churches of S. Angelus de Augusta, S. Georgius de Augusta, S. Iacobus de Augusta and S. Marina de Posterula prope montem Augustum are mentioned in the twelfth century and the portus Aguste or Austu in the thirteenth, from which marble was shipped for the construction of the Cathedral of Orvieto. The ruins were converted into a fortress by the Colonna family, and its destruction in 167 led to considerable damage to the ruins. The fortifications were, however, repaired in 124The body of Cola di Rienzo was burnt here in 1354.

By the sixteenth century it had become a garden; it then belonged to the Soderini family. Later it passed to the Correa family. There were excavations in 1793, made by Marchese Francesco Saverio Vivaldi Armentieri, of the result of which little is known. Early in the nineteenth century a circus had already been formed on the site of the garden; and the mausoleum is now surmounted by a large concert hall, known as the Augusteo, in the entrance passages of which considerable remains of the chambers, faced with opus reticulatum, may still be seen.
 
11 - 37 MAUSOLEUM HADRIANI
The modern Castel S. Angelo, on the right bank of the Tiber, built by Hadrian as his mausoleum, together with the bridge (PONS AELIUS, q.v.) by which it was approached (Ill. 3. The mausoleum of Augustus had last been opened to receive the remains of Nerva, but was no longer in use; and the Antonine emperors and their families were buried also in the mausoleum of Hadrian, so that it acquired the name of Antoninorum sepulcrum or ᾿Αντωνινεῖον. Inscriptions actually recorded are as follows: the dedicatory inscription to Hadrian and Sabina set up in 139 A.D. by Antoninus Pius, the sepulchral inscriptions of Antoninus Pius and Faustina, and of three of their children ; of Aelius Caesar; of three children of Marcus Aurelius; of Lucius Verus, and of Commodus. That Marcus Aurelius himself was buried here follows from Herodian, and it is probably true of Faustina the younger also. Cass. Dio tells us that, besides Severus, Julia Domna, Caracalla and Geta were also laid to rest here. The various mentions of it in Hist. Aug. are simply copied from Cassius Dio.

It had already been included in the system of fortifications by the time of Procopius, when it was converted into a bridgehead and became the chief fortress of the city, (see PORTA AURELIA (, PORTA CORNELIA). A description of it by Pope Leo I (440-46 was long thought to have been preserved in the Mirabilia; but the idea is baseless; and the account of Petrus Mallius, which is often quoted as an independent authority, is probably copied from the Mirabilia itself.

A detailed account is, however, given by Procopius who says that it was faced with blocks of Parian marble, and that there were statues of men and horses of the same material in the upper part, which rose above the city walls. The statues were, many of them, hurled down upon the besieging Goths in 537 A.D.

John of Antioch (Malalas) cited in HJ, writing in the eighth century, describes a colossal quadriga on the summit of the mausoleum; but Hulsen points out that the chapel of S. Angelo de Castro S. Angeli, also called inter nubes-see HCh p. 196, 586-which commemorated the vision of Gregory the Great in 590, during a plague, of the archangel Michael sheathing his sword above the fortress, and was probably founded by Pope Boniface IV (608-615), must already have been in existence there. Another mediaeval church was that of S. Thomas de Castro S. Angeli; while the church constructed by Hadrian I was later called S. Maria in Traspadina and was only removed by Pius IV.

The description of the Mirabilia mentions the bronze railings which surrounded the building, (the foundations of which came to light in 1890), and states that they were adorned with peacocks of gilt bronze, afterwards removed to the fountain (of the famous pinecone) which adorned the forecourt of S. Peter's; also a porphyry sarcophagus which served as the tomb of Pope Innocent II at the Lateran, while its cover was in the forecourt of S. Peter's, over the tomb of Cynthius, prefect of the city (died. 1077). A bronze bull and four horses of gilt bronze, and bronze doors on each side are also mentioned, and bronze doors below, ' as they appear at the present day.' These last are also mentioned in connection with the death of Paschal II in 1118. As fortress, prison, and summer residence of the Popes it has a most interesting history, which cannot be followed here. For removal of ancient materials in the Middle Ages, see LS.

The whole monument was enclosed by a low wall; at the entrance from the bridge were four travertine pillars upon which stood the bronze peacocks above mentioned; and between them were bronze grilles. For the bronze bull which is said to have stood here in the Middle Ages, see JRS 1919. The lower part was a base or podium about 84 metres square and o0 high, consisting of a travertine wall, faced originally with marble. Over the entrance was the dedicatory inscription, the other sepulchral inscriptions being disposed on each side of the door. Behind the travertine wall is an inner wall of brickwork 2 feet thick, into which are bonded the radiating brick walls of the vaulted chambers that surrounded the main circular drum. At each angle the internal wall thickens out into a solid mass to support the groups of men and horses of which Procopius speaks. Careful study of the points of contact between these walls 

and the main drum seems to indicate that the erection of the square base was decided on after the building of the drum was well advanced, probably for greater accommodation ; for though the chambers formed by the radiating walls do not, in their present form, look very like sepulchral chambers, it is difficult to seek elsewhere those which would probably have been necessary-unless we suppose that the remains were placed in the central tomb chamber. This measures about 9 by 8 metres, and thus would have provided ample room for the urns-not more than twenty in all, so far as we know-which were placed in the mausoleum.

The main drum, 64 metres in diameter and 21 high, is constructed of concrete, and was also faced with Parian marble. The original entrance, the floor of which is some feet below the present level, has been cleared; it leads into a vestibule, at the end of which is a large niche; it probably contained a colossal statue of Hadrian, the head of which, formerly in the Castello, is now in the Vatican. A colossal head of Antoninus Pius, which is still in the Castello, belongs also to a statue. From the vestibule a finely preserved spiral ramp, ventilated by four airshafts, at a gradient of about 1 in 10, leads, through the solid core, up to the corridor of the central tomb chamber, which lies vertically above it. The ramp was probably continued as a staircase beyond the approach to the central tomb-chamber, up to the level of the garden, which appears to have occupied the upper surface of the drum, except for a second square chamber. Above this again was a cylinder containing a third (circular) chamber; the spiral staircase which encircles this chamber and by which the uppermost terrace is now approached has recently been shown to be ancient to within 8 feet of the top.
 
11 - 38 MEFITIS, AEDES, LUCUS.
A temple and grove of Mefitis on the Esquiline. This site was probably just north of the temple of Juno Lucina, towards the VICUS PATRICIUS (q.v.), that is, a little south-west of the present Piazza dell' Esquilino. It is probably mentioned in one inscription of the time of Septimius Severus.
 
11 - 39 MENS, AEDES.
A temple on the Capitol, probably within the area Capitolina, vowed by the praetor, T. Otacilius Crassus, in 2B.C. after the defeat at Lake Trasimene, according to the instructions of the Sibylline books, at the same time with the temple of Venus Erucina. In 2both temples were dedicated by duoviri appointed for the purpose, that of Venus by Fabius Maximus, and that of Mens by Otacilius. The two temples were separated by an open drain. The temple of Mens seems to have been restored by M. Aemilius Scaurus, consul in 1B.C., either at that time or after his campaign against the Cimbri in 107. The day of dedication was 8th June.
 
11 - 40 MERCURIUS, AEDES.
A temple dedicated in 495 B.C. by a centurion, M. Plaetorius, to whom the people had given this honour. It was on the slope of the Aventine, above and facing the circus Maximus, near its south-east end. It was dedicated on the Ides of May, which afterwards became a festival of the mercatores. Maia seems also to have shared this temple with her son. This temple may perhaps be represented on a coin of Marcus Aurelius, with a podium of three steps, on which stand four herms in place of columns, supporting an architrave, and above this what looks like a curved pediment with animals and attributes of the god. The statue of Mercury stands between the herms. This apparently curved pediment is not necessarily so, and in any case, if some temples of Mercury were round, all were not. If the coin represents the temple of Mercury, it may indicate a restoration by Marcus Aurelius. It was standing in the fourth century, but no traces of it have been found.
 
11 - 41 MERCURIUS SOBRIUS.
see VICUS SOBRIUS.
 
11 - 42 METAE MERCURIAE
see SACELLUM MURCIAE.
 
11 - 43 META ROMULI.
A name sometimes given in the Middle Ages to a pyramidal monument that stood between the mausoleum of Hadrian and the Vatican. It was called meta alone; and sepulcrum Remuli. Magister Gregorius calls it pyramis Romuli. At the beginning of the Renaissance it was also incorrectly called SEPULCRUM SCIPIONIS (q.v.). The name meta Romuli was probably given to this monument because the pyramid of CESTIUS (q.v.) had in some way come to be called meta Remi. It is described as larger than the pyramid of Cestius and of great beauty. From its marble slabs were made in the tenth century the pavement of the Paradiso of S. Peter's and the steps of the basilica. It stood at the intersection of the Via Cornelia and the Via Triumphalis, on the east side of the latter, and its southern part was removed when Alexander VI constructed the Borgo Nuovo in 1499. The rest stood until 15at least. The monument therefore covered the Borgo Nuovo and the Via di porta Castello at their intersection. It may be seen in various mediaeval and early Renaissance views of Rome.
 
11 - 44 META SUDANS.
A large fountain just south-west of the Colosseum, thought to stand at the meeting-point of five of the regions of Augustus, I, II, III, IV, X. It is said to have been built by Domitian in 96 A.D., a date which corresponds with the style of brickwork. In shape it resembled a goal in the circus (meta) and sudans described the appearance of the jets of water.2 That the name was not an unusual one is shown by the fact that there was one at Baiae. This fountain is represented on a coin of Alexander Severus, and it is mentioned in Not. (Reg. IV) and in Eins.. The core still stands, conical in shape,  metres high and 5 in diameter at the bottom. Around the base is a great basin, 21 metres in diameter, probably of the time of Constantine. The whole structure was originally covered with marble. Its name may be preserved in that of the church of S. Maria de Metrio, which was situated in this district, and is mentioned in the catalogues and in bulls of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Hilsen proposes to identify it with the church on the south- west of the Sacra via, on the way up to the arch of Titus, which LR.
 
11 - 45 MICA AUREA.
A street, district or building on the Caelian in Region II. According to St. Jerome a mica aurea was constructed by Domitian in 94-95 A.D., and in Chron. micam auream is probably to be supplied in the list of Domitian's buildings. If these all refer to the same mica aurea, it was clearly a building. In Martial's epigram, the reference is to some kind of small pleasure-house or dining-hall, which might naturally be identified with the mica aurea of Domitian. But the tholos can hardly be anything else than the mausoleum of Augustus in the northern part of the campus Martius, a building that could hardly be seen at all from such a cenatio on the Caelian, where the mica aurea of Not. was situated. Either Martial's mica was not the mica aurea of the chroniclers, or the tholos must refer to some other sepulchral monument that we cannot identify, or to a dome in the imperial palace.
 
11 - 46 MICA AUREA IN IANICULO.
A locality on the slope of the Janiculum men- tioned in Eins., and also indicated in the names of two early mediaeval churches-SS. Cosma e Damiano de mica aurea and S. Iohannes in mica aurea. It is probable that a mica aurea, something like that of Domitian (v. supra) had been built on the slope of the Janiculum between S. Cosimato and S. Pietro in Montorio, which gave its name to the immediate district and perhaps later simply to a street. A sixth century inscription, containing the word micaurea, may be the earliest reference to this locality, but this is very uncertain. Another reference is to be found on a fresco in the lower church of S. Crisogono, with the figure of one Romanus P.P. de Mica Aurea, (a good deal previous to the tenth century).
 
11 - 47 MILLIARIUM AUREUM.
A column covered with gilt bronze, erected by Augustus in 20 B.C., when he assumed the cura viarum about Rome. It was regarded as the point of convergence of all the great roads running out of the city, and on it were engraved the names of the principal cities of the empire and their distances from Rome, although these distances were reckoned from the gates in the Servian wall, not from the milliarium itself. This stood in capite romani fori and sub aede Saturni, probably between the rostra and the temple of Saturn, but no trace of its foundations has been found. Of the monument itself two possible fragments have been found, one a part of the marble shaft, 1.42 metres long and 1.in diameter, with two sides left rough and traces of bronze facing, and the other a part of a circular marble plinth decorated with palmettes.
 
11 - 48 MINERVA, AEDES.
A temple on the Aventine, first mentioned as becoming the headquarters of the scribae and histriones during the second Punic war (Fest. 33. It was restored by Augustus, was standing in the fourth century (Reg. XIII), and is represented on the Marble Plan as peripteral hexastyle, about 22 metres wide and 45 long, with thirteen columns on each side. It seems to have been between the temples of LUNA and DIANA, probably near the intersection of the modern Vie di S. Sabina and S. Prisca.

The date of the foundation of this temple is not known. The day of dedication is given in some of the sources as the Quinquatrus, 19th March; in others as 19th June. This discrepancy has been explained by supposing that the later date was that of the restored temple, or that it referred to the constitutio of the temple, and the earlier to the dedication. 
 
11 - 49 MINERVA, AEDE.
A temple in Region I (Not., om. Cur.), of which nothing further is known or conjectured.
 
11 - 50 MINERVA, TEMPLUM.
Among the buildings attributed to Domitian is a templum Castorum etMinervae, and the same designation is employed in the Regionary Catalogue. This would indicate either one structure, or two near together, an inference that is supported by the discovery of part of the statue of Minerva near the lacus Iuturnae.

On the tabulae honestae missionis after 89 A.D. it is stated that the originals were placed in muro post templum divi Aug. ad Minervam, and the same juxtaposition of these two temples is found in Martial. The shrine of Minerva should, then, be situated between the temple of Augustus and the temple of Castor, and many scholars have accepted Hulsen's theory which identifies it with the large court (by 21 metres) which served later as the forecourt of S. Maria Antiqua, behind, i.e. east, of the temple of Augustus and in front of the building supposed to be the bibliotheca divi Augusti, or else with a smaller shrine standing in this court. Another explanation is that Domitian, after restoring the temple of Castor, rededicated it under the name of Castorum et Minervae. For further particulars and the description of the ruins, see TEMPLUM D. AUGUSTI.

A more recent theory is that the templum Minervae was a library erected by Domitian in honour of Minerva and really her chief temple in Rome, and that this structure comprised the complex of buildings of the time of Domitian, commonly called thetemplum d. Augusti and bibliotheca templi d. Augusti. The Minerva of the diplomas (v. supra) is the name given to part of the earlier library belonging to the temple of Augustus-although separated from it by a wall, which was built by Tiberius and lay south of the existing church of S. Teodoro. Still more recently Bartoli has maintained that the phrase ad Minervam refers to a statue, not to a temple at all; Chron. and Cur. cit. would then refer to the temple of Minerva in the forum Nervae. The juxtaposition of the temple with that of Castor and Pollux is, however, strongly against this view.
 
11 - 51 MINERVA, DELUBRUM.
A shrine dedicated by Pompeius, who built it out of the spoils of his campaigns. Nothing is known of the history of this temple (see MINERVA CHALCIDICA).
 
11 - 52 MINERVA.
See FORUM NERVAE.
 
11 - 53 MINERVA CAPTA (MINERVIUM).
A shrine on the Caelian. The site described by Ovid corresponds to that indicated in the procession of the Argei, where Minervium undoubtedly is this shrine, which is therefore to be located on the northern part of the Caelius, the Caeliolus, probably very near the present church of the SS. Quattro Coronati. This also corresponds with a possible indication of the Haterii relief, where a statue of Minerva is seen through the arcus ad Isis. If this is accepted as evidence, it shows that the shrine was standing in the second century. An inscription found on the Caelian may also refer to it, and a statue of Minerva in alabaster found near SS. Quattro Coronati, now in the Museo delle Terme, is attributed to it.

Ovid gives four explanations of the epithet Capta, of which only one has any probability (843-844: an quia perdomitis ad nos captiva Faliscis I venit ? et hocipsum littera prisca docet). If this be true, the shrine was erected after the destruction of Falerii in 241 B.C. The terms parva delubra and Minervium should indicate that this shrine was not an aedes sacra but only a sacellum. If so, Ovid's statement (see above) that the day of dedication was 19th March is an error, due to the confusion of this sacellum-which would have no natale marked on the calendar-with the temple of Minerva on the Aventine.
 
11 - 54 MINERVA CHALCIDICA.
A temple mentioned in Reg. between the Iseum and the Pantheon, and included among the buildings erected by Domitian. It is also mentioned in Eins. as Minervium; ibi S. Maria, and in the Mirabilia as iuxta Pantheon templum Minervae Calcidiae. Whether it was a restoration of the temple built by Pompeius cannot be determined. The church of S. Maria sopra Minerva was known as S. Maria de Minerva until the fifteenth century: and we need not suppose that it is built on part of the foundations of this temple. Some authorities believe that part of the cella itself was still standing in the early sixteenth century.
 
11 - 55 MINERVA MEDICA.
A temple on the Esquiline (Reg. V), dating from republican times, and referred to in two inscriptions. Its position in the Regionary Catalogue, between the campus Viminalis and the temple of Isis Patricia, points to a site in the northern part of Region V, but the discovery of hundreds of votive offerings-on one of which is one of the two inscriptions in the via Curva, just west of the via Merulana, may mean that this was its location. Some tufa walls, resembling favissae, were also found here. For the circular building wrongly so called, see NYMPHAEUM.
 
11 - 56 MINUTUS, MINUCIUS, ARA, SACELLUM.
see PORTICUS MINUCIA.
 
11 - 57 MITHRAEUM.
see ( DOMUS CLEMENTIS, ( THERMAE ANTONINIANAE. ( Another, in Piazza S. Silvestro, was built by a certain Tamesius Augentius Olympus, nephew of Nonius Victor, in 357-362, and probably destroyed in 391-2. ( See DOMUS NUMMIORUM. A well-preserved Mithraeum (with a Lararium above) was found in 1885 east of S. Martino Ai Monti. Another was found opposite S. Vitale in the Vigna Muti. For a small Mithraeum found on the Quirinal (in Via Mazzarino), see CIL. A Mithraeum existed on the Capitol as late as 139but it was destroyed between 1550 and 1594, and the relief belonging to it is in the Louvre. A small chapel with a relief was found in 1872. The position of the rest of the Mithraea enumerated by Cumont cannot be fixed. (g) For a (doubtful) Mithraeum on the Aventine near S. Saba.
 
11 - 58 MOLINAE.
Public mills for grinding corn, situated on the Janiculum just inside the porta Aurelia.  They were driven by the water of the aqua Traiana and were in regular use until this aqueduct was cut by the Goths during their siege of Rome in 537 when floating mills were invented by Belisarius. They are also mentioned in the seventh and eighth centuries.
 
11 - 59 MONETA.
The imperial mint in Region III. Its site on the via Labicana close to S. Clemente is indicated by the discovery at this point in the sixteenth century of several inscriptions which record dedications to Apollo, Fortuna, Hercules, Victoria, Genius familiae monetalis, by the various officials of the mint. These dedications date from 1A.D., but the mint was probably established here considerably earlier, though not before the time of Vespasian, when the domus aurea, which must have included this site, was abolished.
 
11 - 60 MONETARII.
The name applied to workers in the imperial mint (see MONETA） and also, apparently, to the district where they dwelt or had their headquarters.
 
11 - 61 MONS ROMULEUS.
see STATUA SALONINI GALLIENI.
 
11 - 62 MONUMENTUM ARGENTARIORUM.
see ARCUS SEPTIMI SEVERI (in Foro Boario).
 
11 - 63 MONUMENTUM ARRUNTIORUM.
see SEPULCRUM ARRUNTIORUM.
 
11 - 64 MONUMENTUM AURELIORUM.
A tomb discovered in 19on the right of the via Labicana, close to the horti Torquatiani, on the south-east of the modern Viale Manzoni. It is almost certainly to be attributed to the period of the Severi. The name is given by an inscription in mosaic in the floor. The paintings of the subterranean interior, which are of great interest, have been variously interpreted; the latest authority, Wilpert interprets them as Gnostic, but eclectic. The Sermon on the Mount is clear; but this, like the other scenes, e.g. the clothing of the naked and the feeding of the hungry, might deceive a pagan visitor into supposing that there was nothing Christian about the tomb. In the series of the Apostles a portrait of S. Peter (the earliest we have) and in the upper chamber representations of Adam and Eve may be clearly recognised.
 
11 - 65 MONUMENTUM CINCIORUM.
see CINCIA.
 
11 - 66 MONUMENTUM DOMITIORUM.
see SEPULCRUM DOMITIORUM.
 
11 - 67 MONUMENTUM IULIORUM.
see TUMULUS IULIAE.
 
11 - 68 MONUMENTA MARII.
(in Capitolio):

see TROPAEA MARII.
 
11 - 69 MONUMENTA MARIANA.
see AEDES HONORIS ET VIRTUTIS MARIANA.
 
11 - 70 MONUMENTUM STATILIORUM.
see SEPULCRUM STATILIORUM.
 
11 - 71 MUCIALIS COLLIS.
see QUIRINALIS COLLIS.
 
11 - 72 MUNDUS.
According to our ancient authorites, there was a holy place in Rome, called mundus, or probably mundus Cereris, which was in connection with the worship of the gods of the underworld. It was a domed structure, large enough for a man to enter and in the floor of it there was an opening, leading to a chamber or shaft, which was sacred to the Di Manes, and was only opened on the three days above mentioned, which were regarded as unlucky. Varro also says that the stone which closed the opening was called Manalis lapis is a pure conjecture (see MANALIS LAPIS (). Nor have we any information whatsoever as to the site of the mundus.

On the Palatine there was a small shrine, which was a memorial of the foundation of the city, named ROMA QUADRATA (q.v.) by Festus 258, and described by Ovid, Fast., who, however, gives it no name.

From this point Romulus started the furrow (sulcus primigenius) which was to mark the line of the enceinte of his city. Plutarch's statement, is the result of confusion; and its absurdity is increased by his placing the centre of the city of Romulus on the Comitium.

In 1914, under the north-east part of the peristyle of the domus Augustiana, a chamber with a bee-hive roof was found, the sides of which are lined with blocks of cappellaccio (a soft tufa); in the centre of it a circular shaft descends to two underground passages cut in the rock (which here rises to near the surface) which diverge but (after forming a right-angled triangle with a hypotenuse of metres) meet again in a rock-cut domed chamber, half of which has been destroyed by Domitian's foundations.

Leopold not only accepts the bee-hive chamber as the mundus (or a mundus), but believes that traces of Roma quadrata were also found close by, and were indeed visible before the construction of the palace of Domitian. He notes, however, that the mundus, which is never brought into connection with the foundation of Rome, may be a good deal later than the first settlement on the Palatine. He further believes that the combination of mundus and Roma quadrata was repeated in the forum in the lapis niger, which was not merely an altar of the gods of the underworld, but a record of the place on which the city was founded; and he thus explains Plutarch's statement that it was situated in the Comitium, and localises here (and not on the Palatine) the distribution of suffimenta ad Romam quadratam in 204 A.D.

The identification or juxtaposition of the mundus and Roma quadrata, and the placing of the latter here, will not square with any of the possible theories in regard to the site of the temple of Apollo (Fest. 258), and it may be a late antiquarian invention.

For an attempt to parallel with the Palatine mundus certain underground tholoi (at Piperno, Circeii, etc.), see AJA 1914.
 
11 - 73 MURCIA.
The shrine of an early Roman divinity in the valley between the Palatine and Aventine. As the circus Maximus gradually occupied all this space, the shrine was preserved and kept its place within the circus at the south-east end of the course on the Aventine side. This end of the course and spina was called the metae Murciae. For a theory that this shrine was at the other, north-east, end of the circus, near the carceres. The shrine itself is called ara vetus, sacellum, fanum, aedes, but it was probably originally only an altar, afterwards surrounded by a puteal. It seems to beindicatedon the Foligno relief, but this may be the shrine of Sol rather than Murcia. This point is often referred to as ad Murciae, and at a later period the valley of the circus was called the vallis Murcia. Of the real character of this divinity all knowledge was lost, and the Roman antiquarians gave several explanations of the name. The most popular was that of Varro, who derived Murcia from myrtea, on the theory that this low ground was originally grown up with myrtle. As the myrtle was sacred to Venus, Murcia herself was identified with the goddess of love (Tert.), who then became known as Venus Murtea or Murcia.
 
11 - 74 MURCUS MONS.
see AVENTINUS MONS.
 
11 - 75 MURI AURELIANI.
The walls begun by Aurelian after the war against the Marcomanni and before that against Zenobia in 272 and finished by Probus.

A restoration by Arcadius and Honorius in 403 is attested by the inscriptions on the portae Portuensis, Praenestina, and Tiburtina and by Claudian; and the description of the walls appended to the Einsiedeln Itinerary is generally attributed to this period. Repairs by Theodoric are attested by brick stamps, as well as by Cassiodorus, if ' moenia ' refers only to the city walls.

One-third of the whole circuit and all the gates are said to have been destroyed when the city was stormed by Totila, but this is an exaggeration; it was restored by Belisarius. Of the Popes, Hadrian I and Leo IV were especially active in repairing the walls; the Roman senate repaired them in 1157 (v. PORTA METROVIA), and much was done by the Renaissance popes, as their arms show. The greater part of the circuit remains, except along the river from near the porta Flaminia to the pons Aurelius on the left bank, and from the porta Aurelia to the porta Portuensis on the right bank. The former disappeared in the Middle Ages, and the latter under Urban VIII, who brought the new porta Portese about 500 metres nearer the city (for the towers on the river-bank, see Roma iii. (1925), 317), and connected it and the porta Aurelia (S. Pancrazio) by a new line of fortifications with the Leonine city, which had been re-fortified by Paul III and Pius IV.

Otherwise, the line of the walls has remained unaltered since the time of Aurelian, except for the construction of a great bastion by Antonio da Sangallo the younger for Paul III (see PORTA ARDEATINA), in pursuance of a scheme which was not continued; and comparatively few openings for traffic have been made, despite the growth of the modern city. The line selected was the octroi boundary of the time of Commodus, which was marked by cippi. Existing buildings were incorporated in this, and subsequently in the wall, for about one-sixth of the total length, (such as the supporting walls of the horti Aciliorum and horti Sallustiani, the castra Praetoria, the arches of the various aqueducts, from porta Tiburtina to porta Maior, and the Amphitheatrum Castrense). For the haste with which the work was done, see BC 1892,.

Though the various restorations of which evidence may be seen in the walls themselves have not yet been brought into relation with the scanty historical evidence we possess, it is clear that originally the wall was not more than 25 feet high, and that it has since been heightened and the arcades added.

The walls as they now stand form one of the finest products of the science of Roman fortification. They are built of concrete faced with brick, are about feet thick, and of varying height, the ground level inside being generally considerably above that outside. feet from the ground inside they are traversed by a sentinel's passage passing through both curtain and towers, the latter occurring every 100 feet; they are quadrangular, project about feet from the curtain, and rise about 20 feet above the wall. The gates have double or single archways, according to their importance, with flanking towers, and only some of them have vantage courts. The material used for the walls was largely older brick.
 
11 - 76 MURUS MUSTELLINUS.
The probable reading in Festus 154: Mutini Tutini sacellum fuit in Veliis adversummurum mustellinum, but no explanation of the epithet has been given (mustela=weasel).
 
11 - 77 MURUS RUPTUS.
see HORTI ACILIORUM.
 
11 - 78 MURUS SERII TULLII.
The wall ascribed by tradition to the sixth of the kings of Rome, perhaps in completion of work already begun by Tarquinius Priscus.

There is considerable discord in the tradition as to which hills were added to the city by which kings, (see POMERIUM); but the statement that Servius Tullius added the Esquiline and the Viminal is consistent with the facts.

It is probable that the original settlements on the Palatine, Capitol, Quirinal, etc., had no stone walls, but relied on natural features or sometimes on earthworks, e.g. MURUS TERREUS CARINARUM (q.v.).

There are remains of a wall in smallish blocks of grey tufa (cappellaccio) at various points on the line of the later enceinte, which are usually assigned to the original wall of Servius Tullius of the sixth century B.C..

The blocks employed are from 0.20 to 0.30 metre high, 0.55 to 0.66 wide and 0.75 to 0.90 long. The most important sections of this wall are to be seen:

(a) at the head of the Via delle Finanze, where the Villa Spithoever once stood. This fine section of it (Ill. 36), some 35 metres long, was discovered in 1907, but a modern street has been run through the middle of it; while other pieces were discovered to the south-west in the garden of the Ministry of Agriculture. Other similar remains appear to have been found near S. Susanna and S. Maria della Vittoria in the seventeenth century, and some of it was still visible in 1867 (Jord. k), though not mentioned in other lists.

(b) in the Piazza dei Cinquecento, opposite the station.

(c) at the south-west angle of the Palatine.

(d) on the north side of the Capitol, under the retaining wall in front of the German Embassy above the Vicolo della Rupe Tarpea; omitted by Jord. i. I. 207, regarding it as a part of the substructions of the area of the temple of Jupiter. The two probably coincided at this point.

(e) in the garden of the Palazzo Colonna at the west end of the Quirinal.

Of these fragments of wall, (a) and (e) undoubtedly belonged to the outer line, while (b) was the retaining wall at the back of the agger, which, no doubt, existed from the first. Of (d) we can say nothing certain, and (c) may belong either to the Palatine or to the Servian enceinte.

To ascribe them to the wall of the city of the Four Regions is impossible, as (a) and (b) would both then be excluded ; and it is very doubtful if this city ever had a wall of its own.

Frank maintains that the battering back of the courses, the use of anathyrosis and the presence of walls of Grotta Oscura tufa of the fourth century B.C. in conjunction with these fragments, are sufficient to make it probable that they should also be assigned to the same period.

It seems, however, more likely that the cappellaccio wall should, as far as our knowledge goes at present, be attributed to the sixth century B.C.

The line of wall began at the Tiber, crossed the low ground to the south-west corner of the Capitol, ran north-east along the edge of the cliffs of this hill and the Quirinal, until it almost reached the head of the valley between the Quirinal and the Pincian (Collis Hortorum). Then it ran southwards across the tableland of the Esquiline, crossed the valley between the mons Oppius and the Caelian, followed the cliffs on the south-east and south of this hill, then probably followed the south-west side of the Palatine, and thence ran south of the forum Boarium to the Tiber again.

It is possible that we should attribute to the enceinte of this period an arch with a span of Roman feet (3.30 metres), found in 1885 forty metres south of S. Maria in Cosmedin and constructed of voussoirs of cappellaccio. Its left (south- east) side joined a wall of the same material, which ran into the hill. A paved road passed through it, which was taken to be the CLIVUS PUBLICIUS (q.v.), but it had been blocked up by a wall in opus reticulatum. Borsari maintained that it was the PORTA TRIGEMINA (q.v.), but it is most improbable that the road passing through it would have been blocked up at so early a period as the second century A.D. Nor, as Hulsen points out, does its position suit what we know of the line of the Servian wall. Frank (AJA cit.) attributed it to the wall of the ' City of the four regions,' omitting the Aventine; but later, apparently forgetting the information he had obtained from Lanciani (who stated that, as far as he could remember, the material was cappellaccio), he assumed that the material was Fidenae tufa, which is full of scoriae, and that it belonged to the Palatine wall of the fourth century B.C.

It is probable that a consequence of the Etruscan victory over the Romans at the beginning of the Republic was the dismantling of the fortifications of the city. A treaty such as that concluded with Porsena, in which the Romans were forbidden to carry weapons of iron, would doubtless have included this: and the success of the Gallic invasion can hardly be understood Prof. Hulsen has kindly communicated this view to me, and I fully agree with it. unless Rome was an open town.

As the result of the Gallic invasion, the whole enceinte was enormously reinforced and strengthened, the original line, however, being for the most part, if not entirely, retained.

To the construction of this wall the following passages have generally been referred:

Liv. vi. 32. I: ut tribute novum fenus contraheretur in murum a censoribus locatum saxoquadrato faciundum (377 B.C.).

vii. 20. 9: Legionibus Romam reductis relicum anni muris turribusque reficiendisconsumptum （353 B.C.).

It is natural that so great a work as this should have taken a considerable number of years to build.

To this reconstruction belongs all the masonry of larger blocks. Frank remarks that, though the majority of the blocks measure 58-61 cm. high, there is a good deal of irregularity even on the outer face, where he has noted measures as low as 51 cm. and as high as 64, while on the inside, where the agger conceals the blocks, the measurements vary from 40 to 68 cm. The material, however, is entirely Grotta Oscura tufa ; and this seems an even clearer test than that of measurement. The quarry marks too cannot be referred to an earlier period than the fourth century B.C., and, as the stone came from the Grotta Oscura quarries, in the territory of Veii, soon after the fall of that town, it is suggested that they may be Etruscan rather than Roman. In this enceinte the Aventine was for the first time probably included; and a fine piece of wall belonging to it may be seen in the depression between the greater and the lesser Aventine in the Via di Porta S. Paolo. As this meant an increased weakness from the defensive point of view, it was quite natural that the builders of the original wall should have left it and the valley of the circus Maximus out of their scheme. The continuation has been cleared to the north-west of it on the greater Aventine and is almost entirely of Grotta Oscura tufa.

From the porta Collina to the porta Esquilina, where the Servian wall, instead of following the edge of the hill, was obliged to cross the tableland at the base of the Quirinal, Viminal and Esquiline, it was strengthened by a great mound, described by Dionysius as seven stadia in length and 50 feet thick, with a ditch in front of it 30 Roman feet deep and 100 wide. The porta Viminalis was the only gate which passed through this part of the fortifications, which were further strengthened by towers. With a part of the outer wall of the agger near by, it is still preserved in the railway station. Another piece may be seen in the Piazza Manfredo Fanti.

Other parts of the enceinte were fortified in the same way; but this was the agger par excellence, and long after its function had ceased it is spoken of by ancient authors as a prominent feature (see PUTICULI), and it was indeed the highest point in Rome. It was thus used to denote a quarter of the city; and we get a district known as super aggerem, and it survived as a local name in the form Superage as late as 105from which the church took the name of Superagius, and even in 1527.

Many other portions of the wall are preserved, but are too insignificant to deserve separate mention, with the exception of an arch on the slope of the Quirinal, in the modern Palazzo Antonelli, which is only 1.05 metres in span, and therefore not a city gate (TF attributes it to 87 B.C.). For the remains on the Capitol, see ARX.

We cannot admit either that the Palatine was still a separate community when the wall of blocks 2 feet high was built on its north-west side or that this wall was part of a larger enceinte; and we must therefore suppose that it continued to be separately fortified as late as the fourth century B.C. as an additional internal citadel or fort.

For the remains of the wall of the fourth century B.C., see Ann. d. Inst. 1871.
 
11 - 79 MURUS TERREUS.
An earthwork known only from one obscure passage in Varro, in whose time it appears to have been still preserved in part. As the CARINAE (q.v.) was on the western end of the Oppius, and the SUBURA (q.v.) was between the Oppius and Viminal, this work probably ran round the north-west edge of the Oppius and extended as far east as the present church of S. Pietro in Vincoli. It is also probable that the work was on the summit of the hill, or just a little way down on the slope, and that it belonged to the system of fortification of the Oppius at that early period when such earth walls were still in use and the settlements on this and the adjacent hills were independent of each other. It may also have been incorporated in part in the fortification of the SEPTIMONTIUM (q.v.).

The murus terreus has also been placed between the Oppius and the Capitolium along the brook Spinon, between the Carinae and the Velia, on the hill itself dividing the Oppius and Carinae, but none of these theories is satisfactory.
 
11 - 80 MUTATORIUM CAESARIS.
An imperial property in Region I, represented on a fragment of the Marble Plan, and situated without much doubt on the east side of the via Appia, opposite the baths of Caracalla. Different explanations of this name have been given, but no certainty attaches to any of them.
 
11 - 81 MUTUNUS TUTUNUS, SACELLUM.
A shrine of this ancient Italic deity of fertility on the Velia, probably not far from the Regia, which was destroyed during the principate of Augustus to make room for the house of Cn. Domitius Calvinus. The site of the shrine seems to be indicated on a sarcophagus now in the Naples museum.
 
12 N.
12 - 1 NAEVIA NEMORA.
Woods on the Aventine belonging to a certain Naevius, close to the porta Naevia, which was named from them. They became proverbial as a resort of criminals. For the site, see PORTA NAEVIA and VICUS PORTAE NAEVIAE.
 
12 - 2 NAUMACHIAE II.
Mentioned in the Notitia in Region XIV, without further definition. One was perhaps the naumachia Augusti and the other the so-called naumachia Vaticana.
 
12 - 3 NAUMACHIA AUGUSTI.
The artificial pond constructed by Augustus in 2 B.C. on the right bank of the Tiber, where he celebrated sham naval combats on a great scale in connection with the dedication of the temple of Mars Ultor. It was 1800 Roman feet (536 metres) long and 1200 (357) wide (Mon. Anc. loc. cit.), and was supplied with water by the aqua Alsietina, built by Augustus for this purpose. Around the naumachia was a grove, nemus Caesarum, laid out by Augustus in honour of Gaius and Lucius Caesar, and perhaps gardens. In the centre of the basin was an island (Cass. Dio lxvi. 25), and Pliny speaks twice of a pons naumachiarius, restored by Tiberius after fire, which may have been built across the basin to serve as a support for some of the apparatus of the games. This naumachia was used by Nero and Titus, and is mentioned in 95 A.D., but fell into disuse later, for in the time of Alexander Severus only parts of it remained (Cass. Dio Iv. IO). For a possible restoration, see NAUMACHIA PHILIPPI.

This naumachia was previously located nearly opposite the theatre of Pompeius, between the villa Lante and the Lungara, just north of the villa Corsini; but the recent discovery of the specus of the AQUA ALSIETINA (q.v.) has necessitated a change of view, and the earlier theory must probably be accepted, according to which it lay near S. Cosimato.
 
12 - 4 NAUMACHIA CALIGULAE.
see SAEPTA IULIA.
 
12 - 5 NAUMACHIA CAESARIS.
An artificial pond constructed by Julius Caesar in MINORE CODETA (q.v.) in the campus Martius for the sham naval conflicts that were part of the celebration of his fourfold triumph in 46 B.C.. This basin was filled up in 43 B.C. in consequence of an epidemic in the city, and has left no trace.
 
12 - 6 NAUMACHIA DOMITIANI.
An artificial pond constructed by Domitian for sham naval battles paene iustarumclassium. It was iuxta Tiberim, and is usually located on the right bank of the Tiber without further evidence. Stone from this structure was afterwards used in restoring the circus Maximus, which had suffered from fire
 
12 - 7 NAUMACHIA PHILIPPI.
A naumachia on the right bank of the Tiber, constructed by Philippus Arabs and his son in 247 A.D., when the one thousandth anniversary of the founding of Rome was celebrated. This may have been only a restoration of the naumachia Augusti, which in that case would have lasted a century longer and been one of the two naumachiae of the Notitia.
 
12 - 8 NAUMACHIA VATICANA.
The modern name for a structure, thought to have been a naumachia, lying just north-west of the castle of S. Angelo, the ruins of which were excavated in 1743 and of which traces have been found later. For a full discussion of the identification of this building, its history, and bibliography, see Hulsen. He believes that this was the work of Trajan, to whose period the brick-facing belongs, perhaps a rebuilding of that of Domitian in the same or another place, and that it had been abandoned by the sixth century. It would then have been one of the two naumachiae of Not.; and from it came the name regio naumachiae, which was in use as early as the sixth century. It is generally known as circus Hadriani, but wrongly. The Hermes of the Belvedere was found in it, if the information given by Ligorio is correct.
 
12 - 9 NAVALIA.
The docks for ships of war on the left bank of the Tiber. There is no doubt of the existence of such docks in the campus Martius, opposite the PRATA QUINCTIA. These indications of locality are sufficiently vague, and various sites have been proposed. Hulsen places them below the narrowest part of the river, in the neighbourhood of the Palazzo Farnese.

If the reference to Rome were certain, the earliest mention of them would be in a line of Ennius; but they were in any case in existence in 167 B.C..

But the fact that we are told that in 179 B.C. has led Hulsen to argue that, as the porticus post navalia et ad fanum Herculis-the argument seems to apply whether we omit the et of the MSS. or not-must be intermediate between the other two porticus, those extra portam Trigeminam and post Spei, we have an indication of the existence of other earlier Navalia further downstream just north of the porta Trigemina. But the very existence of the last portico depends on our acceptance of Becker's correction of the reading of the MSS., which give post Spei ad TiberimaedemAPOLLINIS MEDICI (q.v.). Still, it would be difficult to suppose that any other temple of Hercules was meant than that of Hercules Victor; and if we refer the passage to the navalia in the campus Martius, the temple of Hercules must have been one of the two near the circus Flaminius (see HERCULES CUSTOS, HERCULES MUSARUM) and the porticus becomes altogether too extensive.

It is also very natural to suppose that the navalia of the early republic were under the protection of the Servian walls, and therefore situated on the Tiber bank between the porta Carmentalis and the porta Trigemina. And the description of the arrival from Epidaurus of the sacred serpent of Aesculapius and especially the words ' egressis legatis ' in Val. Max. i. 8. 2, which show that the ship had reached its destination (AESCULAPIUS, AEDES) in 291 B.C., and the account of the landing of Cato the younger on his return from Cyprus, which describes his landing at the navalia and passing through the forum to deposit the treasures of Ptolemy in the aerarium Saturni and on the Capitol, both suit such a site.

On the other hand, it seems very doubtful whether the expression of Procopius in regard to the ship of Aeneas, which was preserved in his day at the navalia ἐνμέσῃ τῇ πόλει need refer to the forum Boarium.

All the other passages in which the navalia are mentioned. A restoration by Hermodorus in 99 B.C..

Hulsen also thinks that a coin of Antoninus Pius represents, not a bridge, but the navalia with the Aventine in the background. A painting known to us only by drawings, which had been attributed to the Aventine has been rightly referred to Puteoli by Hulsen, Dubois and Carcopino.

The fragment of the forma Urbis with the inscription NAVALEMFER, which Hulsen had brought in as an argument, he now prefers to omit, as the external characteristics of the fragment make it impossible to place it in the neighbourhood of the circus Maximus; so that it probably belongs to the region of the horrea, south of the Aventine.
 
12 - 10 NAVALE INFERIUS.
see above.
 
12 - 11 NEMUS CAESARUM.
see NAUMACHIA AUGUSTI.
 
12 - 12 NEPTUNUS, ARA.
An altar of Neptune in circo Flaminio, the sweating of which is mentioned by Livy among the prodigia of 206 B.C. The same prodigium, however, is related by Cassius Dio in words that imply a real temple, and it is probable that such a temple did exist at that time (see below).
 
12 - 13 NEPTUNUS, AEDES, DELUBRUM.
A temple of Neptune in circo Flaminio mentioned on an inscription of the Flavian period, and without doubt by Pliny, struck between 42 and 38 B.C., represents a tetrastyle temple with the legend Nept. Cn. Domitius M. f. Imp. This indicates that the temple was vowed at least between 42 and 38, but it may not have been built before 32, when Domitius had been reconciled to Augustus and held the consulship. The group of Scopas he probably brought from Bithynia, his province. The day of dedication of this temple was Ist December. To this temple also have been held to belong the parts of a frieze that were preserved in the Palazzo Santacroce and are now in Paris and Munich (cf. however MARTIS, ARA). In style and execution this frieze belongs to the second half of the first century B.C., and it evidently surrounded either an altar or, more probably, a pedestal, in the temple. This pedestal may well have been that on which Domitius placed the Scopas group. Part of the frieze represents a lustratio of the army of the period before Marius, and probably was a memorial of the victory of the great-grandfather of the builder of the temple, who was victorious over the Celts on the Isere in 121 and censor in 115. Remains of substructures and of six columns of a pycnostyle temple, belonging without much doubt to this temple of Neptune, have been found north-west of the Piazza S. Salvatore. It is impossible to determine whether Domitius built an entirely new temple, or restored that which previously existed in circo Flaminio.
 
 
12 - 15 NIGER LAPIS.
see SEPULCRUM ROMULI.
 
12 - 16 NODINUS.
A brook in Rome that was converted into a sewer. It is mentioned only once with no indication of location, but it may perhaps have flowed from the Colosseum valley between the Palatine and Caelian into the valley of the circus Maximus 
 
12 - 17 NOENSES DE ARA MATIDIAE.
A locality named with others in one inscription, but entirely unknown
 
12 - 18 NOVA VIA.
so called in distinction from the Sacra via, the second of the two streets in Rome before the empire which were known as viae, and itself of great antiquity. It began at the north-east corner of the Palatine, near the temple of Jupiter Stator, where it branched off from the Sacra via, and ran along the north slope of the hill to its north-west corner.

Along this line, on the north side of the hill, the Nova via of the empire has been excavated. Its pavement lies at 23.40 metres above sea-level behind the atrium Vestae, and at 32.30 metres at its junction with the clivus Palatinus. The earlier pavement has been found at least at one point beneath the later. It is possible that the original road was a little to the north of the later, and that the successive enlargements of the atrium Vestae and the building of the enormous substructures of the imperial palace which now span the street changed its first line somewhat. At the north-west corner of the Palatine the straight line of the Nova via is blocked completely by the large hall belonging to the complex of buildings between the bibliotheca Augusti and the lacus Iuturnae, but it is connected with the clivus Victoriae above and the forum below by a flight of steps and an inclined way. It is evident, therefore, that the construction of the temple of AUGUSTUS (q.v.) and the adjacent structures changed the conditions so completely that the original course of the street beyond this point is only a matter of conjecture. We are told, however, that it ended in the Velabrum, and also that in Ovid's time it was connected with the forum. There is no doubt that the original street ran into the Velabrum, near the PORTA ROMANULA (q.v.), which is usually placed near the church of S. Teodoro, although the relation between the Nova via and the clivus Victoriae becomes thereby somewhat dubious. The connection with the forum referred to by Ovid may have been effected by an inclined way turning to the north. It has been suggested that the original road followed the supposed line of the Palatine pomerium on the north and west sides of the hill, but this is very doubtful.

In Greek the Nova via appears as ἡ ,, and Festus cautions against an incorrect, but evidently common, pronunciation of the name.
 
12 - 19 NOVUM TEMPLUM.
see AUGUSTUS, DIVUS, TEMPLUM.
 
12 - 20 AD NUCEM.
A locality mentioned on a sepulchral inscription, and on a lead plate, where the representation of a chestnut tree with nuts may indicate an industrial establishment or an inn.
 
12 - 21 C. NUMITORII AEDIFICIA.
Buildings named after their owner or constructor, mentioned in an inscription of the first century B.C.. Their situation is unknown.
 
12 - 22 NYMPHAE, AEDES.
A temple in the campus Martius, containing many documents relating to the census, which was burned by Clodius. Its day of dedication was 23rd August. There is no indication of its location in the campus Martius, unless its identification with the aedes Iuturnae be accepted. For this, however, there is no convincing evidence.
 
12 - 23 AD NYMPHAS.
Mentioned, and also in another inscription, found outside the porta Ostiensis, of a woman 'quae (h)ab(ita)vit ad nymfas'. Cf. MEFITIS AEDES, LUCUS, which lay above it on the Cispius.
 
12 - 24 AD NUMFIUM.
An entirely unknown locality, mentioned only in one inscription
 
12 - 25 NYMPHAEA TRIA.
On the Aventine in Region XIII (Not. Cur.). This was probably a monumental structure into which three fountains were brought together, and perhaps the same as the nymfea tria attributed to Diocletian
 
12 - 26 NYMPHAEUM (.
A monumental fountain, fed by the aqua lulia, between the via Tiburtina vetus and the via Labicana. The existing remains, of brick-faced concrete, show a two-storied facade with a wide central niche and arched openings on each side. In front, was a curved basin into which the water flowed from the building behind. In the side openings stood the marble trophies (trophaea) which were removed in 1590 by Sixtus V and set up on the balustrade of the Piazza del Campidoglio. Their style is certainly Domitianic, but they were not made for this setting, but for another, in which a Victory stood between them. A quarry mark of Domitian is said to have been seen under one of them and an inscription, quoted by Petrarch and copied (in part only), near the Lateran about 1470, may also be attributed to that emperor.

Despite what has been said to the contrary, however, the brickwork of the structure itself is not of the time of Domitian, but probably of Alexander Severus, on whose coins the building appears to be represented.

In the Middle Ages this nymphaeum had already been connected with Marius and his triumph over the Cimbri, and it appears as Cimbrum in a document of 1176, in the Mirabilia and the Ordo Benedicti; as templum Marii, and as Marii Cimbrum. Poggio says that this templum was built by Marius from the spoils of the Cimbri and that his trophaea were still visible on the monument, confusing these trophies with the MARII MONUMENTA (q.v.). This confusion may have been due to the fact that, after the damnatio memoriae, Domitian's name was erased from so many inscriptions that some of his buildings were attributed to others.
 
12 - 27 NYMPHAEUM (.
On the Esquiline, between the via Labicana and the Aurelian wall, just inside the line of the Anio vetus. There is no mention of this structure in ancient literature or inscriptions, but it is without doubt a monumental nymphaeum. The existing ruins consist of a decagonal hall of opus latericium, which was covered with a domed roof until part of it fell in in 1828, surrounded on three sides with other chambers added at a later date. In the interior of the hall are nine niches, besides the entrance; and above these are ten corresponding round-arched windows. The diameter of the hall is about 24 metres, and the height was 33. It is very important from the structural point of view, and especially for the meridian ribs in the dome. The outside walls were covered with marble and the interior richly decorated in a similar manner.  In the fifteenth century Flavius Blondus (Roma Instaurata) called these ruins Le Galluzze, a name of uncertain meaning that had been applied earlier to some ruins near S. Croce in Gerusalemme. Since the seventeenth century the nymphaeum has frequently been called TEMPLUM MINERVAE MEDICAE (q.v.), on account of the erroneous impression that the Giustiniani Athene had been found in its ruins. It is now often attributed to the HORTI LICINIANI, but without adequate reason.
 
12 - 28 NYMPHAEUM (.
In the Via Annibaldi, between the Via Cavour and the Colosseum: see DOMUS AUREA
 
12 - 29 NYMPHAEUM ALEXANDRI.
On the Esquiline in Region V (Not. Cur.), mentioned also in one inscription. It was probably a monumental fountain connected with the aqua Alexandrina. For a discussion of its identification with either of the nymphaea described above, or with another that is reported to have been found in the Villa Altieri, see HJ 350; Jord. i. I. 478; Mitt. 1923-4, 185-192 ; LA 385-386, and literature cited there.
 
12 - 30 NYMPHAEUM FLAVI PHILIPPI.
known from an inscription of the fifth century in three copies, two of which have disappeared. The third was found in the Via Cavour near the church of S. Francesco di Paola, and some ruins beneath this church are thought to have belonged to the nymphaeum
 
12 - 31 NYMPHAEUM IOVIS.
somewhere in Region VII, probably in the southern part
 
13 O.
13 - 1 OBELISCUS ANTINOI.
The obelisk now standing on the Pincian hill, which was brought to Rome by Hadrian. The hieroglyphics were probably cut in Rome, and state that the obelisk was erected on the site where Antinous was buried, just outside the limits of the city, but it is uncertain whether this means that the body of Antinous was actually brought to Rome or not. The fragments of this obeliskwere set up in 1570 in the vigna Saccoccia outside porta Maggiore at a point marked by an inscription recording the fact, which was fixed to one of the piers of the aqua Claudia, about 360 metres east of the Aurelian wall. This was made one of the piers of the acqua Felice in 1585, The original site of the obelisk was probably not far from this point. In 1633 it was removed by the Barberini to their palace, and afterwards presented to Clement XIV (1769-1777). It lay in the Giardino della Pigna in the Vatican until 1822, when Pius VII erected it on the Pincian. The obelisk is about 9 metres high, and may have stood at the entrance to the tomb or cenotaph of Antinous, perhaps with another of the same size (NS 1922, 137-where the old identification with the horti Variani or spei Veteris is still retained.
 
13 - 2 OBELISCUS AUGUSTI, GNOMON.
An obelisk erected at Heliopolis in the seventh century B.C. by Psammetichus II, brought to Rome by Augustus in B.C. and set up in the campus Martius between the ara Pacis Augustae and the columna Antonini Pii. It is of red granite, 21.79 metres high. It was standing in the eighth century, but was thrown down and broken at some unknown date, and not discovered until 1512. It was excavated in 1748, but, in spite of various attempts, it was not set up again in the Piazza di Montecitorio, its present site, until 1789. It was repaired with fragments from the columna Antonini.

Augustus dedicated this obelisk to the Sun and made it the gnomon, or needle, of a great meridian (horologium, solarium) formed by laying an extensive pavement of marble on the north side of the shaft, the lines indicating midday at the various seasons of the year, being marked by strips of gilt metal inlaid in the marble. Seventy years later the indications of the dial were incorrect, and it was supposed that the obelisk had been slightly displaced by an earthquake. About 1484, and at various times in the next century, portions of the pavement were found, with the gilt lines, and figures in mosaic around the edge representing the winds and different heavenly bodies, but they were covered up again and are not visible. The height of the obelisk would require a pavement extending about 1metres east and west, and 60 north and south.
 
13 - 3 OBELISCUS AUGUSTI IN CIRCO MAXIMO.
Brought from Heliopolis by Augustus at the same time as the gnomon. This is shown by the identical inscriptions on the bases of the two. It was dedicated to the Sun, and erected on the spina of the circus Maximus. The hieroglyphics on the shaft were cut partly by Seti I and partly by Rameses II, 1292-1325. The height of the obelisk is 23.70 metres. Nothing is known of the history of the obelisk after the fourth century until the sixteenth, when fragments of the base and inscription were found during the pontificate of Gregory XIII (1572-1585), and the obelisk itself, broken into three pieces, in 1587. It was then removed and erected on its present site, in the Piazza del Popolo.
 
13 - 4 OBELISCUS CAPITOLINUS.
The obelisk that stood in front of the church of Ara Coeli on the Capitol until some time between 1555 and 156when it fell. It was given in 1582 by the city authorities to Ciriaco Mattei, who set it up in the Mattei gardens, where the upper part still stands on a modern base. It was probably brought to Rome in the first century, and may have been set up on the Capitoline in connection with the shrine of Isis (see ISIS CAPITOLINA), which stood there at that time.
 
13 - 5 OBELISCUS CONSTANTII.
The obelisk which is now standing at the Lateran which was brought to Rome by Constantius in 357 A.D., and set up on the spina of the circus Maximus. It was erected by Thutmose III in the fifteenth century B.C. in front of the temple of Ammon at Thebes. Augustus thought of bringing it to Rome, and Constantine did bring it down the Nile to Alexandria. Its transportation to Rome and erection by Constantius are described by Ammianus and in the inscription cut on four sides of the base, which has now disappeared. The obelisk is of red granite, 32.50 metres high the largest in the world and the last brought to Rome. Its surface is covered with hieroglyphics. It is mentioned in the twelfth century, and again in 1410-17, and by Du Perac, but in 1587 it was found, broken into three pieces and buried about 7 metres in the ground. It was excavated by Sixtus V and erected in 1587 on its present site.
 
13 - 6 OBELISCUS DOMITIANI.
see OBELISCI ISEI CAMPENSIS (.
 
13 - 7 OBELISCUS HORTORUM SALLUSTIANORUM.
Now standing in the Piazza della Trinita dei Monti. This obelisk was brought to Rome some time after the period of Augustus and erected in the gardens of Sallust, where it was still standing in the eighth century. It is metres high, and on its surface is a copy made in Rome, probably about 200 A.D., of the hieroglyphics of the obelisk of Rameses II that Augustus set up in the circus Maximus . In the fifteenth century it was lying on the ground, broken into two pieces, near its base and remained there until the eighteenth century dated 21st March, 1706, and lettered 'scoprimento della Guglia, etc.'  In 1733 Clement XII had it conveyed to the Lateran, but did not set it up. In 1789 Pius VI erected it on its present site. The base was covered over after 1733, but found again in 1843 in the northern part of the horti, between the Vie Sicilia, Sardegna, Toscana and Abruzzi (cf. HORTI SALLUSTIANI). It is a large block of red granite (2.50x2.55 m.), and has been placed on the Capitol as the base of a monument to the fallen Fascists.
 
13 - 8 OBELISCUS INSULANUS.
see INSULA TIBERINA.
 
13 - 9 OBELISCI ISEI CAMPENSIS.
Several small obelisks found at different times near the church of S. Maria sopra Minerva, which were probably brought to Rome during the first century and grouped in pairs, with others, at the entrances of the temple of Isis (ISEUM, q.v.), which stood between the Saepta and the temple of Minerva:

( that now standing above the fountain in front of the Pantheon. This belongs to the time of Rameses II and stood in front of the temple of Ra at Heliopolis. It is 6 metres high and covered with hieroglyphics. It is referred to in the fifteenth century as lying in the piazza in front of S. Macuto, but in the sixteenth it had already been set up there (Fulvius, Antiquit. Urbis lxxi.), and it is also marked on the map of Bufalini. In 17Clement XI removed it to its present position.

( that now standing on Bernini's elephant in the Piazza della Minerva, where it was placed by Alexander VII in 1667. It was erected at Sais by Pharaoh Apries in the first half of the sixth century B.C., and has only four lines of hieroglyphics (BC 1896, 284-288=Ob. Eg. 115-119). Nothing was known of it until it was found in 1665.

( that now standing in the Viale delle Terme, which was found in 1883 under the apse of S. Maria sopra Minerva. It is about 6 metres high with hieroglyphics, and was erected by Rameses II at Heliopolis.

( Another of the obelisks that were probably set up in the precinct of Isis is that which stands on Bernini's fountain in the Piazza Navona. This seems to have been made in Egypt by order of Domitian, and brought to Rome where the hieroglyphics were cut. They allude to the repair of that which was ruined, i.e. the Iseum. When the circus of Maxentius was built on the via Appia, the obelisk was transported thither and erected on the spina. It lay among the ruins of the circus until 1651 when Innocent X placed it in its present position.

- Besides these, Ligorio, mentions three more similar obelisks, one of which had been excavated in front of the church of S. Maria sopra Minerva; this is in all probability that which passed into the possession of the Medici, and remained in their villa on the Pincio until 1787, when it was removed to the Boboli gardens in Florence, as it has inscriptions almost identical with those of (. The remains of the other two were built into modern houses, but had, he says, the same measurements and the same hieroglyphics. These fragments, three in number, were given to Cardinal Alessandro Albani, who presented them to the city of Urbino in 1737, where they now stand, (made up into one obelisk), with another fragment (probably not enumerated, as being without any inscription) in front of the church of S. Domenico. They have inscriptions of the time of Apries like (. For a drawing of one of the fragments, see Heemskerck.

Another obelisk lies buried not far from S. Luigi dei Francesi, about which no particulars can be given, as it has never been excavated.

A portion of another small obelisk which may have come from the Iseum is described and illustrated by Kircher, op. cit. 135, 136, as existing in the Palazzo Cavalieri-Maffei in Piazza Branca, now Piazza Cairoli. It was later in Villa Albani, and appears to have been sent to Paris; from there it was brought, with Cavaceppi's restorations, to the Glyptothek at Munich. The inscription is much injured, and the T. Sextius Africanus mentioned in it has not been identified with certainty with either of the two known men of this name, one of the time of Claudius and Nero, the other of the time of Trajan. If the two obelisks from the temple of Fortune at Praeneste, which belong to the time of Claudius, can rightly be called counterparts of it, the identification should be with the former.
 
13 - 10 OBELISCI MAUSOLEI AUGUSTI.
Two obelisks that stood in front of the mausoleum of Augustus in the campus Martius. As they are not mentioned by Pliny nor by Strabo in his description of the mausoleum, they probably were not brought from Egypt before the time of Domitian. One of these obelisks, which are a little over metres high, was excavated before 1527 behind the church of S. Rocco and set up behind S. Maria Maggiore in 1587; the other was found at the same time, but was not excavated till a little before 1550, and was not moved until 1782, when Pius VI placed it in the Piazza del Quirinale. They are without hieroglyphics
 
13 - 11 OBELISCUS VATICANUS.
The obelisk from Heliopolis erected by Caligula on the spina of the circus Gai et Neronis, and now standing in front of S. Peter's. In the Middle Ages it was called the tomb of Julius Caesar, whose ashes were supposed to be contained in a gilt ball on its top, now in the Museo dei Conservatori. It is a monolith of red granite, without hieroglyphics, 25.36 metres in height, and was moved from its ancient to its present site in 1586 by Fontana, at the command of Sixtus V, having stood erect from the time when it was brought to the city. The vessel which brought it was used as the nucleus of the central breakwater on which the pharos stood or the left-hand breakwater of the Claudian harbour of Portus Augusti. The mediaeval church of S. Stefanus de Agulia took its name from it.

The story that, when the obelisk was being raised the silence was broken by a sailor named Bresca, from San Remo, who shouted "acqua alle funi," appears in a new form in Rawlinson's Diary, vol. i. 7 Dec. 1720, 'the great obelisk of which is told this story, that when it was raising, the ropes fell too short, and so great was the fear of failing that silence was commanded on pain of death, but an English sailor present bid them wet the ropes, which then lengthened and the work was finished, but instead of a reward, the sailor had only his life given him, forfeited by his transgression of the command.', who points out that the story really belongs to the obelisk at Constantinople and is taken from the relief on its base.

 
13 - 12 ODEUM.
A building for musical performances, erected by Domitian in the campus Martius, probably near the Stadium. It was restored by Apollodorus in the reign of Trajan and contained 10600 loca, that is, places for about 5000 spectators. In the fourth century it was regarded as among the most conspicuous monuments in Rome; in the fifth as one of the seven mira praecipua. It is possible that the artificial elevation, called monte Giordano, covers its ruins.
 
13 - 13 OFFICINAE MINII.
Mills for the working of red lead (minium) brought to Rome from Spain. They were on the Quirinal between the temple of Flora and that of QUIRINUS (q.v.), and therefore probably at the foot of the hill, near the present Via Rasella.
 
13 - 14 OPPIUS MONS.
The southern spur of the Esquiline hill, separated from the CISPIUS (q.v.) on the north by the valley of the Subura, and from the Caelius on the south by the valley of the Colosseum. The Oppius and the Cispius united to form the Esquiline plateau just inside the line of the Servian wall. In the divisions of the SEPTIMONTIUM FAGUTAL appears as an independent locality, so that we may infer that originally Oppius was strictly applied to this spur except the western end. Part of this western end was also called CARINAE (q.v.). The name Oppius continued in use, at least for religious purposes, to the end of the republic; no later instance has been found. Oppius, according to Varro, was a citizen of Tusculum, who came to the assistance of the Romans while Tullus Hostilius was besieging Veil, but the etymology of the word is obscure. It may possibly be that of a clan located at this point and it is noteworthy that it is a plebeian gentilicium (v. SEPTIMONTIUM). Detlefsen's conjecture that Oppius is derived from Oppidus is revived by Pinza, who regards the name as comparatively late.
 
13 - 15 OPS, AEDES, TEMPLUM.
A temple on the Capitol, probably in the area Capitolina, which is first mentioned as being struck by lightning in 186 B.C.. In the latter part of the second century B.C. L. Caecilius Metellus Delmaticus dedicated a temple to Opifera, probably Ops Opifera, which may refer to a restoration of the existing temple on the Capitol, or less probably to a new one. If it was a new one, it may perhaps have been in the forum, and referred to in the calendar. The temple of Ops on the Capitol was famous as the place where Caesar stored the state treasure of 700,000,000 sesterces.

It is also mentioned incidentally by Cicero and in the Schol. Veron. of Vergil. At the celebration of the ludi saeculares in B.C. the matronae assembled in this temple, and the Arval Brethren in 80 A.D.. Military diplomas were fastened on its walls, and it is possible that standard weights were also kept here. The day of dedication of this temple was the festival of the Opiconsivia on 25th August.
 
13 - 16 ORBONA, FANUM.
A shrine ad aedem Larum, that is, on the Velia, of which nothing further is known.
 
13 - 17 ORCUS, AEDES.
A temple that Elagabalus destroyed to make room for his temple of Elagabalus on the Palatine.
 
13 - 18 ORFIENSES.
see LACUS ORPHEI.
 
13 - 19 OVILE.
An enclosed area in the campus Martius, where the comitia centuriata met to vote. It derived its name from its likeness to a sheepfold, and ovile may have been the original designation for this enclosure, but it was also called Saepta. After the building of the republic was replaced by the SAEPTA IULIA (q.v.) the name ovile continued to be used. The ovile was an inaugurated templum and probably occupied the same area as the later Saepta Iulia, on the west side of the via Lata, but extended considerably farther to the west, a square with sides of about 1000 Roman feet.

This enclosed space was divided by barriers of some sort into aisles and sections, corresponding in number to the curiae, tribus or centuriae of the different assemblies, and through these the people passed to deposit their votes on the pons or raised platform at the side.
 
14 P.
14 - 1 PACATI F(UNDUS ?).
Probably the estate of one Pacatus. It is mentioned on one inscription
 
14 - 2 PAEDAGOGIUM.
see DOMUS AUGUSTIANA.
 
14 - 3 PAEDAGOGIUM PUERORUM A CAPITE AFRICAE.
see CAPUT AFRICAE.
 
14 - 4 PAGUS AVENTINENSIS.
The district that comprised the Aventine hill, designated according to its original form of organisation. From the evidence of an inscription of the Augustan period, found at Lanuvium, it is believed that this term continued in use down to the first century, and that the Aventine was organised religiously as a pagus until its formal inclusion in the pomerium of Claudius
 
14 - 5 PAGUS IANICULENSIS.
A name for the district on the right bank of the Tiber while it was still organised as a pagus. It is found only in two inscriptions of about 100 B.C., one in a pavement of opus signinum discovered near S. Maria dell' Orto 
 
14 - 6 PAGUS MONTANUS.
a name occurring in one inscription on a travertine cippus that was found in situ behind the tribune of the church of S. Vito on the Esquiline. This inscription, (a fragment of a senatus consultum belonging to the second century B.C.,) seems to show that this part of the Esquiline, outside the Servian wall, was then still organised as a pagus. Montanus is usually explained as equivalent to Esquilinus. Cf. also OPPIUS MONS.
 
14 - 7 PAGUS SUCUSANUS.
see SUCUSA.
 
14 - 8 PALATINUS MONS.
The centremost of the seven hills of Rome, an irregular quadrilateral in shape, and about 2 kilometres in circuit. Its highest point is 43 metres above the level of the Tiber, and 51.20 above sea-level; and its area was about 25 acres. According to tradition, it was the first of the hills to be occupied by a settlement; and some authorities think that ritual reasons had much to do with its selection. Pigorini believed that the Prisci Latini occupied it owing to its similarity in shape to that of the rectangular ' terremare ' of the plain of the Po, from which they came, and also to the fact that it was surrounded by streams. He further favoured the derivation from palus. To others the natural advantages of its position seem sufficient.

It was a flat-topped hill with two distinct summits, the Palatium and Cermalus, protected by lofty cliffs far more formidable than they seem at present and almost entirely surrounded by two marshy valleys traversed by winding streams, being connected only by the narrow ridge of the Velia with the Oppius, an outlying part of the Esquiline. It was thus a position of great natural strength, and its neighbourhood to the river gave it the command of the crossing of the Tiber, probably a ford at or near the site of the pons Sublicius. This crossing was of great importance, for it was the only permanent one on the whole of the lower course of the river.

The usual form of the name is Palatium, the substantive form differentiating it from all the other hills on the left bank of the Tiber, except the Capitolium. The word is generally connected with the root pa-, which appears in pasco and Pales; but this etymology is disputed.

We find variations both in form and quantity-e.g. Palatualis, Palatuar. Naevius brings it into association with balare and calls it Balatium. Even Martial makes the d long.

The ancient tradition is unanimous in placing on the Palatine the earliest nucleus of Rome, and modern scholars have generally agreed. Though some recent investigators have cast doubts on it for various reasons, none of them is of sufficient validity; Pinza resolves the city into isolated villages on the different hills, so that the Palatine loses its primacy; while Carter is equally sceptical.

The legend of the LUPERCAL (q.v.) speaks also for the early dating of the foundation of the Palatine settlement; nor can it be proved that the Luperci Collini were earlier than those of the Palatine.

Richter 32 is wrong in referring to the earliest Palatine settlement, for it was a Latin community, and no Etruscans had as yet reached Latium. ROMAQUADRATA is also recent in its extended sense. It could not arise till Palatium and Cermalus were one; and in the lists of the Argei (third century B.C.) they are still separate. The fortifications of the Palatine present something of a puzzle. It is most likely that the original settlers relied on the great natural strength of the hill; and that the remains of defensive walls of the sixth century B.C., which are to be found at the north-west corner of the hill, belong either to a separate enceinte contemporary with the Servian wall of the whole city, or to this wall itself (see MURUS SERVII TULLII) ; while those of the fourth century- generally known as the wall of Romulus-on the west and south sides of the hill, may belong to a separate fort, erected perhaps in 378 B.C., further remains of which may be seen near the top of the Scalae Caci. Whatever may be our view as to the non-inclusion of the Aventine, the fragments of walling on the west side and high up on the south must belong to a separate enceinte, even if those low down on the south did not. Bagnani suggests that the object of a separate enceinte on the Palatine may have been the defence of the Pons Sublicius and the all-important crossing of the Tiber (see VICUS IUGARIUS).

According to Varro, the Palatine had three gates-the porta Romana, the porta Mugonia and the porta Ianualis. This last, however, was on the north side of the forum, and can have had nothing to do with the Palatine (see IANUS GEMINUS). And if it was founded according to Etruscan ritual, it should have had three. Most authorities, on the other hand, speak of only one gate. The most probable explanation is that the road which passed through the porta Mugonia forked, one branch going to the Esquiline across the Velia, and the other along the north and west slopes of the Palatine, descending as it went. to the porta Romana, which was situated somewhere on this clivus. The Scalae Caci, at the foot of which was the third (nameless) gate, formed a footway, avoiding this long winding road, down to the bottom of the hill. The lower part of them may well have resembled the stairway described in Whitaker, Motya, 154-159.

Among the earliest buildings on the Palatine may be mentioned two archaic cisterns, both constructed in walling of cappellaccio tufa, in cavities cut in the rock, with an external packing of clay between the rock and the wall. Both have been cut through and destroyed by later walls of 2 foot blocks of tufa. One originally had a beehive roof; and at least one more similar cistern has been found below the ' house of Livia'. The other is made of thin slabs set on edge, and is 6 metres in diameter, with steps leading down into it. Four sixth century vases were found in the clay lining. Lower down is a small square shrine (?) approached by a flight of steps, which is possibly the CASA ROMULI; though it is useless to attempt an exact identification, its general situation is certain. A little lower down again is an inhumation tomb, assigned to the fourth century B.C., but found half full of debris of various ages (and therefore tampered with in ancient times); and below it the native rock has been exposed, and pole sockets, possibly for huts, have been found in it. It was asserted that remains of archaic tombs were discovered, but this interpretation of the results is now generally rejected. The tufa walls mentioned above have been interpreted as being retaining walls for raising the level of the whole area after the fire of 1B.C., which destroyed the temple of the Magna Mater, made of blocks taken from the fourth century fortifications on each side of the Scalae Caci, but this is by no means certain, and some of them may themselves be part of these fortifications.

The excavations were suspended at this point in 1907 and have not been carried further down the hill. But it is noticeable that this group of remains was spared by later constructions. Tiberius, Domitian and Hadrian all preferred to build enormous substructions out towards the forum rather than encroach upon this area at the top of the SCALAE CACI (q.v.), sacred to the earliest memorials of the city.

We hear of a number of earlier buildings and sanctuaries on the hill -the curiae Veteres, the curia Saliorum, the curia Acculeia, the sacella of Acca Larentia and of Volupia; the shrines and temples of Aius Locutius, Dea Viriplaca, Febris, Fides, Fortuna, Iuno Sospita, Luna Noctiluca, Venus, etc. But the only sanctuaries that scholars can attempt to localise belong to the later centuries of the republic-VICTORIA, IUPPITER VICTORand MAGNA MATER (q.v.), and only with regard to the last has any certainty been attained.

The road system of the Palatine was fundamentally changed by the buildings of the imperial period; these also blotted out the remains of the private houses, which, as the Palatine changed its character and began to come into favour, owing to its position, as a place of residence for the aristocracy, sprang up all over the hill. The oldest of which we have any record is that of VITRUVIUS VACCUS (q.v.) in 330 B.C. Later we hear of that of Cn. Octavius, consul in 165 B.C., which was bought by M. SCAURUS for the enlargement of his own house (q.v.); and not far off was that of Crassus. The house of M. Fulvius Flaccus, consul in 125 B.C., on the site of which Q. Lutatius Catulus built a portico, and a house for himself close to it, must have lain near the north end of the hill; as also must that of M. Livius Drusus, as well as that of Cicero. Other important republican houses, such as those of Q. Cicero, Milo, P. Sulla and Licinius Calvus, were also situated in this part of the Palatine; but the site of that of Mark Antony cannot be fixed. Nor is it possible to identify with certainty any of the houses mentioned above with the remains of republican houses which have been found under the imperial palaces.

On the other hand, the identification of the house of Hortensius, which later on was bought by Augustus, with that generally known as the house of Livia is almost certain (see DOMUS AUGUSTI). This house was left standing up to the end of the classical period, being respected by the later emperors just as was the house of Romulus. Tiberius, in building his palace on the north-west summit of the hill (the Cermalus), did not encroach upon it, and it escaped the fires of Nero  and Titus, and was similarly spared by Domitian and Hadrian (v. DOMUS TIBERIANA).

For the history of the other summit of the hill, upon which Nero appears to have built a part of the domus Transitoria over the ruins of republican private houses, while the whole was later remodelled by Domitian (to whom the Palatine owed far more than to any other emperor), with additions by Septimius Severus, see DOMUS AUGUSTIANA,SEPTIZONIUM.

After the Severan period we hear but little of the Palatine, though it continued to be the imperial residence. It is recorded both of Elagabalus and of Alexander Severus that they laid pavements of porphyry and Lacedaemonian marble, but no remains can be identified of any of their buildings. Nor can we identify the stable which Carinus decorated with a fresco of a great venatio, nor the thermae which Maxentius erected.

It is clear that in the time of Constantine a considerable part of the hill was occupied by streets and private buildings; and the removal of the imperial residence to Byzantium meant the beginning of the end. Constantius, it is true, was 'in Palatium receptus ' when he visited Rome in 356 A.D.. We know very little about the FORUM PALATINUM (q.v.) which was given to the Roman people by Valentinian I and his colleagues in 374 A.D.

The emperors of the fifth century also resided on the Palatine when in Rome-Honorius, Valentinian III, as well as Odoacer and Theodoric; the latter restored the Palatine, as well as the walls of the city, with funds from the arca vinaria, and Cassiodorus, Var. vii. 5. 5, enumerates the workmen employed; while several brick-stamps of Theodoric have been found, especially in the hippodromus. It is surprising that it is never once mentioned by Procopius; though we are told that Narses died there in 57He appears also to have removed many of the works of art. In 687, in the sepulchral inscription of Plato v(ir) ill(ustrissimus) cura(tor) palatii urbis Romae, repairs to a long staircase are mentioned, perhaps that descending from the domus Tiberiana to the forum, in which case the residence of this Byzantine official was situated there. Another official, the cartularius, or head of the military archives (who appears from the history of the seventh and eighth centuries to have been actually in command of troops), dwelt near the arch of Titus and the region later (eleventh to thirteenth centuries) known as Palladium (p. 165); and here the papal archives were later kept, and not in the mediaeval Turris Cartularia, which took its name from its neighbourhood to the Cartularium. On the slope above, the great supporting wall of the platform on which S. Sebastiano stands was strengthened by a mediaeval fortification wall of uncertain date, which was, if not built, at least used, by the Frangipani, who occupied the whole Velia and may have built the tower.

By this time the lower slopes of the hill had already been occupied by various churches. S. Anastasia, at the western angle near the Lupercal, probably goes back to the middle of the fourth century. It was erected in imitation of the Holy Place in Bethlehem, and was decorated with paintings by Damasus and was the first of the titular churches, ranking only after the Lateran and S. Maria Maggiore. Under the church are important remains of six different periods from republican opus quadratum down to repairs of the time of Theodoric. They have nothing to do with the circus Maximus, but are remains of arcades belonging to the lower slopes of the Palatine.

S. Teodoro, on the north-west side, lies well above the classical level, and is constructed in the second of the three courtyards of the HORREA AGRIPPIANA (q.v.). It is mentioned in the Not. Diacon. of the sixth century. The mosaic in the apse is attributed to the sixth century.

For S. Maria Antiqua, see DOMUS TIBERIANA; and for the churches on the south (S. Lucia and S. Maria in Pallara), see SEPTIZONIUM, DOMUS AUGUSTIANA.

The centre of the hill must have been rendered inaccessible by earthquakes, notably by that of the time of Leo IV; and we have practically no mention of it in the Anonymus Einsiedlensis nor in the Mirabilia.

At the beginning of the sixteenth century, the Palatine, still called by its mediaeval name of Palazzo Maggiore, was covered with gardens and vineyards. Between 1540 and 1550 the whole of the north half of the hill was bought by Cardinal Alessandro Farnese and converted into a garden. Excavations were made in the state apartments of the DOMUS AUGUSTIANA (q.v.) in the eighteenth century; but the site of the DOMUS TIBERIANA(q.v.) remained untouched until the excavations of Rosa for Napoleon III (which cannot have been very thorough) and is still a beautiful example of a formal garden. The central portion belonged to the Paolostati family, from whom it paused successively to the Mattei, Spada, Magnani; then it was bought by Sir William Gell, but soon passed to Mr. Charles Mills, who built the pseudo-Gothic villa which still bears his name. Later on it became a nunnery. The Vigna Ronconi occupied the south-east portion, from the Stadium onwards, in the sixteenth century; while the south-west portion was in the hands of the English College until after 1870. The east angle was occupied by the Vigna Barberini.
 
14 - 9 PALATIUM LICINIANUM.
The name applied in mediaeval documents to a building or buildings on the Esquiline, near S. Bibiana at the corner of the Viale Principessa Margherita and the Via Cairoli. It is natural to connect this with the HORTI LICINIANI (q.v.) or gardens of the Emperor Licinius Gallienus, and the arch of Gallienus at the old porta Esquilina, and it has been conjectured that by 300 A.D. the district between the Viae Tiburtina and Labicana and the wall of Aurelian had largely come into the possession of the emperors, and that the term, palatium Licinianum, was applied to the complex of buildings in the horti, including the existing NYMPHAEUM ( (q.v.). This, however, is as yet merely conjecture.
 
14 - 10 PALATIUM SESSORIANUM.
see SESSORIUM.
 
14 - 11 PALES, TEMPLUM.
A temple built by M. Atilius Regulus after his victory over the Sallentini in 267 B.C. It probably stood on the Palatine, and seems to have disappeared at an early date.

The newly discovered pre-Caesarian calendar from Antium has, under the 7th July, Palibus ii. This has been held to prove that the Parilia, celebrated on 21st April, the day of the foundation of Rome, should be derived from parere.
 
14 - 12 PALLACINAE.
A name which occurs in classical literature only in Cicero and his scholia, in connection with balnea and vicus. Whether there was originally a district-Pallacinae- or not, is probable but not certain, and the testimony of early Christian literature is in favour of such a hypothesis. In the eighth century a porticus Pallacinis is mentioned, of which possible fragments were found in the Via degli Astalli. In any case the district was near the north-east end of the circus Flaminius, and the vicus may have coincided in general with the Via di S. Marco.
 
14 - 13 PALMA AUREA.
see AD PALMAM.
 
14 - 14 AD PALMAM.
a name that seems to have been used from the fifth or sixth century for the area between the Curia and the arch of Septimius Severus. This area had previously been called TRIA FATA (q.v.), and was undoubtedly identical with the Palma Aurea of Fulgentius. The DOMUS PALMATA (q.v.) has been wrongly placed here.
 
14 - 15 PALUS CAPREAE.
see CAPREAE PALUS.
 
14 - 16 PANTHEON.
a temple which, with the thermae, Stagnum and Euripus, made up the remarkable group of buildings which Agrippa erected in the campus Martius. According to the inscription on the frieze of the pronaos the temple was built in 27 B.C., but Cassius Dio states that it was finished in 25. This passage is not altogether clear, but it seems probable that the temple was built for the glorification of the gens Iulia, and that it was dedicated in particular to Mars and Venus, the most prominent among the ancestral deities of that family. In the ears of the statue of Venus hung earrings made of the pieces of Cleopatra's pearls. Whether the name refers to the number of deities honoured in the temple, or means 'very holy', is uncertain: but Mommsen's conjecture that the seven niches were occupied by the seven planetary deities is attractive, and Hilsen is now in favour of it. There is no probability in Cassius Dio's second explanation.

In the pronaos of Agrippa's building were statues of himself and Augustus, and on the gable were sculptured ornaments of note. The decoration was done by Diogenes of Athens, and Pliny goes on to say. The position of these Caryatides has been much discussed, but is quite uncertain.

The Pantheon of Agrippa was burned in 80 A.D. and restored by Domitian. Again, in the reign of Trajan, it was struck by lightning and burned. The restoration by Hadrian carried out after 126 was in fact an entirely new construction, for even the foundations of the existing building date from that time. The inscription (see above) was probably placed by Hadrian in accordance with his well-known principle in such cases. The restoration ascribed to Antoninus Pius may refer only to the completion of Hadrian's building. Finally, a restoration by Severus and Caracalla in 202 A.D. is recorded in the lower inscription on the architrave.  In January, 59 A.D., the Arval Brethren met in the Pantheon; Hadrian held court in his restored edifice; Ammianu speaks of it as one of the wonders of Rome; and it is mentioned in Reg. IX.

For a library situated in or near the Pantheon, see THERMAE AGRIPPAE; THERMAE NERONIANAE.

The building faces due north; it consists of a huge rotunda preceded by a pronaos. The former is a drum of brick-faced concrete, in which numerous brickstamps of the time of Hadrian have been found. which is 6.20 metres thick; the structure of it is most complex and well thought out. On the ground level the amount of solid wall is lessened by seven large niches, alternately trapezoidal and curved, and by eight void spaces in the masses of masonry between them, while in the upper story there are chambers above the niches, also reached by an external gallery supported by the middle of the three cornices which ran round the dome. In front of these masses are rectangular projections decorated with columns and pediments alternately triangular and curved, which have been converted into altars. The pavement is composed of slabs of granite, porphyry and coloured marbles; and so is the facing of the walls of the drum, which is, however, only preserved as far as the entablature supported by the columns and pilasters, the facing of the attic having been removed in 1747.  The ceiling of the dome is coffered, and was originally gilded ; in the top of it is a circular opening surrounded by a cornice in bronze, 9 metres in diameter, through which light is admitted. The height from it to the pavement is 43.20 metres (144 feet), the same as the inner diameter of the drum. The walls are built of brick-faced concrete, with a complicated system of relieving arches, corresponding to the chambers in the drum, which extend as far as the second row of coffers of the dome; the method of construction of the upper portion is somewhat uncertain (the existence of ribs cannot be proved), but is probably of horizontal courses of bricks gradually inclined inwards. Pumice stone is used in the core for the sake of increased lightness.

The ancient bronze doors are still preserved, though they were repaired in the sixteenth century. The pronaos is rectangular, 34 metres wide and 13.60 deep, and has three rows of Corinthian columns, eight of grey granite in the front row and four of red granite in each of the second and third. Of those which were missing at the east end (which cannot possibly have been removed in 1545, as they were already absent earlier, the corner column was replaced by Urban VIII with a column of red granite, and the other two by Alexander VII, with grey columns from the thermae Alexandrinae. The columns support a triangular pediment, in the field of which were bronze decorations; in the frieze is the inscription of Agrippa; and the roof of the portico behind was supported by bronze trusses. This portico was not built after the rotunda, as recent investigations by Colini and Gismondi have shown, and the capitals of its columns are exactly like those of the interior, though the entasis of the columns differs. In front of it was an open space surrounded by colonnades. The hall at the back belongs also to Hadrian's time, and so do the constructions on the east in their first form. The exterior of the drum was therefore hardly seen in ancient times.

The podium of the earlier structure, built by Agrippa, lies about 2.50 metres below the pavement of the later portico; it was rectangular, 43.76 metres wide and 19.82 deep, and faced south, so that the front line of columns of the latter rests on its back wall, while the position of the doorways of the two buildings almost coincides. To the south of the earlier building was a pronaos 21.26 metres wide, so that the plan was similar to that of the temple of Concord. At 2.metres below the pavement of the rotunda there was an earlier marble pavement, which probably belonged to an open area in front of the earlier structure;  but a marble pavement of an intermediate period was also found actually above this earlier structure, but below the marble pavement of the pronaos.

The restoration of Severus and Caracalla has been already mentioned; but after it, except for the account by Ammianus Marcellinus, already cited, of Constantius' visit to it, we hear nothing  of its history until in 609 Boniface IV dedicated the building as the church of S. Maria ad Martyres. Constantius II removed the bronze tiles in 663; and it was only Gregory III who placed a lead roof over it. That the pine-cone of the Vatican came from the Pantheon is a mediaeval fable; it was a fountain perhaps connected with the SERAPEUM (q.v.).

The description of it by Magister Gregorius in the twelfth century is interesting, especially for the mention of the sarcophagi, baths and figures which stood in front of the portico. A porphyry urn (from the thermae of Agrippa), added by Leo X, now serves as the sarcophagus of Clement XII in the Lateran. For its mediaeval decoration, see BCr 1912, 25.

Martin V repaired the lead roof and Nicholas V did the same. Raphael is among the most illustrious of the worthies of the Renaissance who are buried here.

The removal of the roof trusses of the portico by Urban VIII gave rise to the famous pasquinade 'quod non fecerunt barbari fecerunt Barberini'.

 
14 - 17 PARIANENSES.
The inhabitants of a district, probably somewhere on the Esquiline, who are mentioned only once.
 
14 - 18 PAVOR ET PALLOR, FANUM.
A shrine that Tullus Hostilius is said to have vowed at the critical moment when the Albans deserted the Romans in the battle against the Veientes and Fidenates.
 
14 - 19 PAX, TEMPLUM.
The temple of Peace which was begun by Vespasian after the capture of Jerusalem in 71 A.D., and dedicated in 75. It stood in the middle of the forum Pacis, north of the basilica Aemilia, probably at the junction of the modern Vie Alessandrina and dei Pozzi. Statius seems to ascribe the completion of this temple to Domitian, but this emperor's claim may have had little foundation. Within the temple, or attached closely to it, was a library, bibliotheca Pacis. In it were placed many of the treasures brought by Vespasian from Jerusalem, as well as famous works of Greek artists, and Pliny speaks of it, the basilica Aemilia and the forum of Augustus, as the three most beautiful monuments in Rome.

Just before the death of Commodus, probably in 19the temple was destroyed by fire,  but it must have been restored, probably by Severus, for it is mentioned in the succeeding centuries as one of the most magnificent buildings in the city. It gave its name to the fourth region of the city (Not. Reg. IV). In 408 there were seismic disturbances for seven successive days in the forum Pacis, and the temple may have been injured then. At any rate Procopius, writing in the sixth century, says that it had long since been destroyed by lightning, although there were still many works of art set up in the immediate vicinity.

The enclosure within which the temple stood is not called forum in literature until after the time of Constantine. Enclosure and temple together appear in Pliny as Pacis opera, and in the Greek writers as τέ... Forum Pacis is found in Ammianus, Polemius Silvius and Marcellinus Comes; forum Vespasiani first in Ep. de Eulalio antipapa, Polemius Silvius (loc. cit.), and undoubtedly in Aurelius Victor. On the north-west it adjoined the (later) forum Transitorium, and on the south-east the basilica of Constantine, being rectangular in shape with the same orientation as the other imperial fora. Its length was 145 metres, and its width about two-thirds as much, although its north-east boundary is uncertain. It had an enclosing wall of peperino lined with marble and pierced with several gates. The peperino blocks have left impressions on the concrete of the basilica of Constantine, the north-west side of which was set against it. At the south-east corner there was an entrance from the Sacra via through a monumental passage which, after several changes, is now the church of SS. Cosma e Damiano. For the history and description of this building, and the theory that it was the Urbis fanum, mentioned by Aurelius Victor as built by Maxentius and consecrated to Constantine, and not the templum divi Romuli, see P. Whitehead. Further investigations have led him to the conclusion that the rectangular building in opus quadratum was the temple of the Penates as restored by Augustus. In the time of Severus a wall was built across the north-east end of this entrance, and on its north-east side, towards the forum, on a facing of marble slabs, was placed the so-called Capitoline Plan of the city, Forma Urbis Romae, the fragments of which were first discovered in May and June 1562. A facsimile is fixed to the wall of the garden of the Palazzo dei Conservatori. Maxentius in any case added the round building, with its facade on the Sacra via.

The history of the forum Pacis is that of the templum, and apart from the entrance just described, scarcely any traces of either have been found except a portion of the pavement of giallo antico and pavonazzetto of the southern angle of the form ten metres below the present level of the Via del Tempio della Pace.
 
14 - 20 PECTUSCUM PALATI.
Referred to once, and explained by Gilbert as a' breastwork,' i.e. the fortified side of the Palatine. This explanation is very doubtful; see Ashby, The Roman Campagna in Classical Times.
 
14 - 21 PENATES DEI, AEDES.
A temple on the Velia, on the site formerly occupied by the house of Tullus Hostilius. This was not far from the forum, on a short street leading to the Carinae, from which street the temple was probably reached by the scalae deum Penatium mentioned by Varro. There is no record of its building, but it is first mentioned in the list of Argei of the second half of the third century B.C. Dionysius describes it as ὑπ.., and its foundation was probably a little earlier than the first Punic war.

In 167 B.C. it was struck by lightning, and in 165 the opening of its doors at night was listed among the prodigia. It was restored by Augustus. In it were archaic statues of the Dioscuri as dei Penates, an identification that is further supported by the evidence of coins of M'. Fonteius, about 104 B.C..  C. Sulpicius, about 94, and C. Antius Restio 49-45. A temple of the Penates seems also to be represented on one of the reliefs of the ara Pacis Augustae.

This temple is sometimes thought to have been removed by Vespasian when he built the forum Pacis (see PACIS TEMPLUM), sometimes to have occupied the site of the so-called ' templum Romuli '. But, according to the most recent theory, the rectangular building which forms the main part of the church of SS. Cosma e Damiano is the enclosure wall of the temple of the Penates as restored by Augustus, which is hidden under the church.

The brick wall at the back, which served to carry the forma Urbis (see PAX, TEMPLUM), is, in its present condition, even later than Septimius Severus: while the rotunda belongs to the time of Maxentius (see URBIS FANUM). The whole subject has been carefully studied by Whitehead and Biasiotti.
 
14 - 22 PENTAPYLUM.
A building on the Palatine, but otherwise unknown, unless it be identified with a possible temple of JUPITER ULTOR (q.v.) (Richmond places it near the DOMUS AUGUSTI).
 
14 - 23 PETRONIA, AMNIS.
A brook that had its source in a spring, the Cati fons, on the west slope of the Quirinal, and flowed across the campus Martius into the Tiber. The CATI FONS (q.v.) is now usually identified with a spring in the cortile di S. Felice of the royal palace in the Via della Panetteria, close to the ancient porta Salutaris. The Petronia stream probably followed the line of the present underground channel which runs south- west across the Piazza Venezia, and westward to the east end of the porticus Pompeiana. From this point its course is doubtful. Whether after uniting with the AQUA SALLUSTIANA (q.v.) it turned south and flowed into the river opposite the island, or continued west under the porticus Pompeiana, and flowed into the Tiber near the navalia, is as yet undetermined. The importance of this stream lay in the fact that it was the boundary of the city auspices, and necessitated the taking of the auspicia peremnia whenever the magistrates crossed it to preside over the comitia centuriata.
 
14 - 24 PHRYGIANUM.
see MAGNA MATER IN VATICANO.
 
14 - 25 PIETAS, AEDES.
A temple in circo Flaminio, mentioned in the list of prodigia of 91 B.C., when it was struck by lightning. Its day of dedication was 1st December. Nothing further is known of it.
 
14 - 26 PIETAS, AEDES.
A temple in the forum Holitorium, vowed by M'. Acilius Glabrio in the battle of Thermopylae in 191 B.C., and begun by him, but dedicated in 181 by his son of the same name, who was appointed duumvir for the purpose. Mancini conjectures that a fragmentary entry: .. .tati in Fast. Ant., under 13th November, should be referred to this temple. It contained a gilded statue of the elder Glabrio, the first of its kind in Rome. This temple stood at the east end of the area afterwards occupied by the theatre of Marcellus, and was destroyed by Caesar in 44 B.C. when he began preparations for the erection of that building. With this temple was afterwards connected the Greek story of the daughter who supported her imprisoned father with milk from her own breasts. Possibly the COLUMNA LACTARIA (q.v.) in the forum Holitorium may have caused the localisation of this legend in the temple.
 
14 - 27 PIETAS AUGUSTA, ARA.
An altar voted by the senate in 22 A.D. on the occasion of the severe illness of Livia, but not dedicated until 43. Nothing further is known of it, though it has been conjectured that the five Valle-Medici reliefs formerly thought to have come from the ara Pacis may possibly belong to it.
 
14 - 28 PILA HORATIA.
A memorial of the victory won by the Horatii over the Curiatii. The spoils of the latter were said to have been fastened. In the Augustan period the pila was the corner column of one of the two basilicas at the entrance of the forum, on which the spoils of the Curiatii had once been hung, and which had retained the name after the spoils had disappeared. Whatever may have been the original form of the monument it was evidently represented at this later time by a pillar or column at the south-east or south-west corner of the basilica Aemilia, or at the north-east corner of the basilica Iulia.
 
14 - 29 PILA TIBURTINA.
A monument on the northern slope of the Quirinal, near the temple of Flora. There may have been a vicus named from this pila, in which the temple of FLORA(q.v.) stood.
 
14 - 30 PINCIUS MONS.
A hill divided from the Quirinal by the valley occupied by the Horti Sallustiani, running in a westerly direction from the Porta Salaria of the Aurelian Wall, and then north-north-west from the Porta Pinciana to the Muro Torto and then west again to the Porta Flaminia. It thus formed the east part of the seventh region. It was known in the early imperial period as Collis Hortulorum and the post-classical name Mons Pincius comes from its owners in the fourth century A.D.: see DOMUS PINCIANA, HORTI ACILIORUM, HORTI LUCULL(I)ANI. The substructions of the last-named altered the contour of the hill considerably, and were made use of by Aurelian, who included them in his hastily erected enceinte.
 
14 - 31 AD PIRUM.
A street on the Quirinal, where Martial lived at one time, and from which the trees in the campus Agrippae could be seen. It was probably on the western slope of the hill.
 
14 - 32 PISCINA AQUAE ALEXANDRINAE.
A distributing reservoir, probably for the aqua Alexandrina, situated on the east side of the thermae Helenae, a little south-west of the porta (Maggiore) Labicana. Remains of at least twelve compartments of this piscina have been found 
 
14 - 33 PISCINA AQUAE VIRGINIS.
A distributing station of the AQUA VIRGO (q.v.) on the west slope of the Pincian hill, just north of the modern Spanish Steps.
 
14 - 34 PISCINA PUBLICA.
A public bath and swimming pool, fist mentioned in 2B.C., situated in the low ground between the via Appia, the Servian wall, the north-east slope of the Aventine, and the area afterwards occupied by the baths of Caracalla. Near it was the headquarters of the lanii piscinenses. This pool later gave its name to the vicus piscinae Publicae, which led from the south end of the circus Maximus across the depression on the Aventine to the porta Raudusculana. The piscina itself was probably fed by local springs, not by the aqua Appia, and had ceased to exist in the second century, but the name clung to the locality, and it was popularly given to Region XII of the city of Augustus. This region was bounded on the north-east by the via Appia, on the south-east by a line extending from the junction of the via Appia and the vicus Sulpicius to the porta Raudusculana, on the south by the line of the Aurelian wall, and on the west and north-west by the vicus portae Raudusculanae and the vicus piscinae Publicae, thus including a very small area inside the line of the Servian wall. Piscina Publica was not an official name for Region XII, and we do not know how early it came into use.
 
14 - 35 PISCINA THERMARUM DIOCLETIANARUM.
see THERMAE DIOCLETIANAE.
 
14 - 36 PLATANONIS.
A name that occurs but once to designate a locality on the Aventine in Region XIII. Platanon means a grove of plane trees and with this genitive vicus is perhaps to be understood. This cannot be the platanon mentioned by Martial which was in the campus Martius near the Hecatostylon. There was probably yet another on the Esquiline, from which the church of S. Eusebio was called 'in platana' in the tenth and eleventh centuries.
 
14 - 37 PLATEA TRAIANI.
A street or square mentioned only once in 398 A.D. It may very probably have been near the forum of Trajan.
 
14 - 38 POMERIUM.
The boundary line of the site destined for a city, which site, according to the rules of augural procedure, was inaugurated as a templum, or rectangular area, within which auspices could be taken, marked off from the ager publicus by a line of stones at regular intervals. The formal founding of a city is thus described by Varro. Thus the furrow represented the moat; and the earth thrown up by the plough, the wall of the city. The line urbis principium or pomerium, behind the murus, marked the limit of the inaugurated district within which auspices could be taken. The word pomerium was soon transferred to the strip of land between this line and the actual city wall, and was then used in both senses; while at a later period it seems to have been still further extended in application and to have been incorrectly used of the strip on both sides of the wall.

In Rome the first pomerium is that of the Palatine city, the wall of which must have been built on the slope of the hill; but its line can only be a matter of conjecture, and that which Tacitus describes as marked out by Romulus is evidently the course followed by the Luperci in his day. It does not agree with Varro ap. Solin. i. 17 (cf. ROMA QUADRATA (). At three points in the circuit, the plough was carefully lifted up, and carried for a few feet. These breaks in the furrowmarked the position of the three gates required for everysettlement by Etruscan ritual.

The successive stages in the growth of the city (see SEPTIMONTIUM, REGIONES QUATTUOR) mark corresponding enlargements of its pomerium, but when the Servian wall was constructed the line of the pomerium was not extended to coincide with it, but remained as it had been during the previous period, the Esquiline remaining outside it. For the Aventine, which was probably not included within the wall until after 390 B.C.. And so it remained until the time of Sulla. He was the first Roman to extend the pomerium, and he based his action on this principle. In his time this referred to territory in Italy, but later it was expanded to cover the ager barbaricus. Of Sulla's extension nothing is known, nor of similar action ascribed to Julius Caesar, Nero, Trajan and Aurelian.

A recent attempt has been made by Laffranchi to show that Augustus' extension of the pomerium occurred thrice, in 27, and 8 B.C., from an examination of his coins.

An extension by Claudius in 49 A.D. is proved by unimpeachable literary testimony and by the discovery of inscribed terminal cippi. These rectangular cippi bear on the top the word Pomerium, on the front the inscription recording the fact of the extension, and on the left side the number of the stone. This number is found on four of the eight cippi so far discovered; on the others it has been obliterated or was never cut.

The numbered cippi are:

1  Found in situ south-east of monte Testaccio, with the number 8.

2   Found near the porta Metrovia inside the Aurelian wall, probably not far from its original site, with the number xxxv.

3  Found in situ about 70 metres west of the Via Salaria and about 400 north of the Porta Salaria, with the number ciix.

4  Found in situ 32.50 metres west of the Via Flaminia and 330 metres north of the Porta del Popolo, with the number cxxxix.

The unnumbered cippi are:

5 Fragment found close to the Tre Archi, where the railway lines pass through the Aurelian wall north of the Porta Maggiore. This cippus was probably very near its original site.

6 Found in 1738 in the Vigna Nari outside the Porta Salaria, very near (c). It was not reported as found in situ.

7 Found in the campus Martius near S. Lucia della Chiavica, not absolutely in situ, but probably not far removed from its proper place.

8 Another cippus corresponding in form to those of Claudius but without any inscription except the word pomerium on the top, found under the new Palazzo delle Ferrovie, at the corner of the Viale del Policlinico, just outside the Porta Pia, not exactly in situ.

If we suppose that the line began at the river south of the Aventine, where the Aurelian wall afterwards commenced, the distance to marked viii, is approximately 570 metres, almost exactly eight times 771 metres equal 240 Roman feet, the bini actus, which was the length of the long side of a iugerum, the distance between the openings in the specus of the aqueducts, and the distance between their terminal cippi, so that it is quite probable that the cippi of the pomerium were at the same distance apart. From 1 to 2, marked viii and xxxv, is about 1920 metres, which again nearly equals 71x27 (1917); and from 3 to 4, ciix and cxxxix, the distance might easily be made about 2201 metres, that is, 71 x3If this line continued to the Tiber directly from 4, about 300 metres, there would have been three or four more cippi, 142 or 143 in all. Further, if the pomerium passing through these four numbered points followed in general the line afterwards taken by the Aurelian wall, leaving out such projections as that made by the wall south of the baths of Caracalla, 5 would naturally fall into it, and 6 and 8 might be supposed to have been moved somewhat from their proper places. The line on the western side of the city is, however, entirely uncertain, for 7 is probably near its original position, and the Iseum and the porticus Octaviae were outside the pomerium in the time of Tiberius, and when Vespasian celebrated his triumph in 71 A.D.

Vespasian also extended the pomerium. Permission was given him in the lex de imperio, and three inscribed cippi of his line have been found:

9  1882, 154, found about 1540-1550 outside the porta Pinciana with the number xxxi. The original is lost and its exact position cannot now be determined, but it was probably about 150 metres in a west-north-west direction from the gate.

11  1886, 232, found in 1856 near the porta Ostiensis, just inside the Aurelian wall and 60 metres from with the number XLVII on its left side and P. CCCXLVII on the right.

13 Found under the church of S. Cecilia in Trastevere, built into a late wall and probably not in its original position. This cippus has no number, and the face where the distance to the next stone was inscribed has been broken off.

The termination of Trajan is thought to be recorded in a coin of 107 (?) (Cohen, Trajan 539), which was restored in two contorniates.

Under Hadrian in 121 A.D. the line was again marked out, and four of his cippi have been found, but they record a restoration and not an extension:

14  1887, 149, found in 1867 under No. Piazza Sforza Cesarini, with the number vi on the left side and P. CCCCLXXX on the right (h in text fig. .

15  31539 b, found in 1732 or 1735 in the foundations of a wall near S. Stefano del Cacco (i in text fig. .

16  31539 c, copied in the sixteenth century " ante domum Caesiam," which gives no evidence of its original locality.

17 There seems to be good reason for accepting the account of Ligorio of the discovery of a cippus near the so-called Porta Chiusa (marked Porta (?), just south of the Castra Praetoria in textfig. ; the text is identical with that of  31539 a. For Commodus we have Cohen.

For a full discussion of the pomerium during the empire, see Jord.

A comparison of the cippi thus far found seems to justify certain conclusions:

(I) that north of the Pincian the pomerium of the empire lay somewhat beyond the line of the Aurelian wall; ( that the thirteenth, and most of the twelfth, region of Augustus lay within it; ( that at some points (cf. 5, 8 pomerium and wall coincided ; ( that, whatever may have been the case with the line of Claudius (see above), the pomerium of Vespasian and Hadrian crossed the campus Martius approximately from the ara Ditis to the south end of the Saepta (cf. 14, 15, and that the part of the campus north of this line was outside the pomerium; that the discovery of one stone (m) does not, under the circumstances, make it probable that Vespasian extended the pomerium across the Tiber; that the distances from the next cippi which are indicated on two stones (1and the inscribed numbers do not afford sufficient data to enable us to draw the rest of the line except possibly for part of that of Claudius.

For the octroi line of M. Aurelius and Commodus, see REGIONES QUATTUORDECIM(p. 44, MURI AURELIANI.
 
14 - 39 PONS AELIUS.
The modern Ponte S. Angelo, built by Hadrian in connection with his mausoleum and finished in 134 A.D.. It is represented on a bronze medallion of Hadrian which is accepted as genuine by Gnecchi. Besides this official name the bridge was called pons Hadriani, and in the Middle Ages Pons S. Petri. It had three main arches 18.39 metres in diameter, with three smaller arches on the left, 3, 3.5 and 7.59 metres in diameter respectively, and two on the right, 7.59 and 3.75 in diameter. From the central part, over the main arches, the bridge sloped down at an angle of degrees, and the approach on the left side was by a long ramp. The total width was 10.95 metres, and the material travertine with peperino between the arches. The inscription was seen, probably on the parapet, in 1375, so that apparently this bridge suffered no great injury until December 1450, when the parapet was broken by the throngs of pilgrims, and restored by Nicholas V. In 1527 the statues of S. Peter and S. Paul were erected by Clement VII, and in 1669-71 Clement IX placed on the parapet the famous statues representing angels. Two of the arches on the left side had become covered up, but the structure remained intact until the building of the present embankment in 1892 necessitated the reconstruction of the ends of the bridge, so that only the three central arches are now standing.
 
14 - 40 PONS AEMILIUS.
The official name of the first stone bridge across the Tiber, said to have been built ,ὑπ̓ Αἰμιλίου ταμιεύοντος. A comparison of the citations just made with other passages indicates that this bridge was close to the pons Sublicius and crossed the river from the forum Boarium. According to Livy M. Fulvius Nobilior when censor in 179 B.C. contracted for the placing of 'pilas pontis in Tiberi,' and P. Scipio Africanus and L. Minucius, the censors of 142 B.C., built arches on these piers. This statement is now generally believed to refer to the pons Aemilius, and Plutarch's attribution of the building of the bridge to a quaestor, Aemilius, is interpreted as a mistake or on the hypothesis that the fornices of 142 were of wood and that the stone arches were laid by a later Aemilius in his quaestorship. That the upper part of the bridge was of wood, until 142 at least, is certain, and therefore a statement in Obsequens (16) under date of 156 B.C., pontis maximi tectum  cum  columnis in Tiberim  deiectum, is cited as evidence that pons maximus was then a name in common use, although Mommsen's conjecture pontificis may be correct.

In the fourteenth century an arch was standing in the forum Boarium in front of the Ponte Rotto described as arcus marmoreus in platea pontis S. Mariae, on which was an inscription referring to a restoration by Augustus after B.C. It is possible that this restoration may have been that of the bridge. Besides pons S. Mariae this bridge was called in the Middle Ages pons Senatorum. In the seventh century Aethicus writes: pontem Lepidi qui nunc abusive aplebe lapideus dicitur iuxta forum boarium transiens. Both these early variants of Aemilius are easily explained, Lepidi from Aemilius, and lapideus from the tradition that it was the first stone bridge (Plut. loc. cit.). The identification of the pons Aemilius of the empire with the present Ponte Rotto may be regarded as certain. This bridge was partially destroyed by the flood of 1557 and repaired by Gregory XIII. In 1598 the eastern half was carried away, and in 1887 two of the three remaining arches were removed, so that only one now stands in midstream. Recent investigation has shown that the ancient pier of this arch is not the earliest, as the remains of the abutment are earlier and belong to a bridge slightly further north which crossed the river at a slightly different angle. This was therefore the bridge of the second century B.C. and the existing arch and pier belong to a second structure, probably that of Augustus. See FORNIX AUGUSTI.

For a viaduct on the road leading from the bridge to the Janiculum, cf. VIA AURELIA.
 
14 - 41 PONS AGRIPPAE.
A bridge 160 metres above the Ponte Sisto, known from an inscribed cippus set up by the curatores riparum in the principate of Claudius (See TRIGARIUM), and the discovery of the remains of four piers at the bottom of the river.
 
14 - 42 PONS ANTONINUS.
see PONS AURELIUS.
 
14 - 43 PONS AURELIUS.
Mentioned only in documents of the fourth and fifth centuries, but doubtless the same bridge as that which was known in the Middle Ages as pons Antoninus. This was partially destroyed in 772, hence the name ruptus, and rebuilt in 1475 in its present shape by Sixtus IV, from whom comes its modern name, Ponte Sisto. The start of the first arch of the older bridge may still be seen. If this identification be correct, the bridge must have been built by an emperor who bore both names, Marcus Aurelius or Caracalla, and perhaps by the latter rather than the former, as he could thus bring the buildings of Severus into closer connection with the campus Martius.

In 1878, in the river immediately below the first arch of the Ponte Sisto, were found remains of an earlier bridge and also of a memorial arch which stood at its entrance. On some of these remains are fragmentary inscriptions which record the rebuilding of arch and bridge by Valentinian I in 365-366 A.D. Some pieces of bronze statues were also found. This proves that the pons Antoninus was restored by Valentinian, and explains a reference in Ammianus. The name, pons Valentinianus, must have been in use to some extent in later times, together with the earlier, for in the Mirabilia (II) both names are found, although, by an error, they are used of different bridges. It is apparent that the impression made on the Romans by the rebuilding of Valentinian was not strong enough to cause the displacement of the earlier names, pons Antoninus, pons Aurelius, by the new official designation. A fragment of a fluviometer was also found.
 
14 - 44 PONS CALIGULAE.
A foot bridge built by Caligula over the temple of Augustus and across the valley between the Palatine and Capitoline, to connect his own palace with the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. This was removed after his death, and nothing is known of its size or appearance. (see DOMUS TIBERIANA).
 
14 - 45 PONS CESTIUS.
The modern Ponte S. Bartolomeo, the first stone bridge from the island to the right bank of the river. It is mentioned only in Not. app. and Pol. Silv. (545), but probably was built soon after the pons Fabricius. Several Cestii of some prominence are known in this period, and the bridge was probably constructed by one of them, while curator viarum, between 62 and 27 B.C.

In the fourth century the pons Cestius was replaced by what was practically a new structure, which the Emperors Valentinian I, Valens and Gratian finished in 369 and dedicated in 370 as the pons Gratiani. There were two inscriptions recording this event, each in duplicate, the first cut on marble slabs placed on the parapet on each side of the bridge, the second beneath the parapet. One of the former is still in situ. The pons Gratiani was 48 metres long and 8.20 wide, with one central arch, 23.65 metres in span, and a small arch on each side, 5.80 metres wide. The material was tufa and peperino with facing of travertine, and the pedestals of the parapet probably supported statues of the emperors as those of the pons Fabricius did hermae. The construction was rough and characteristic of the decadence, and very little of the earlier pons Cestius could have survived in the later structure, although the general appearance and form of the two bridges were doubtless about the same.

The pons Gratiani was restored at various times between the twelfth century and 1834, but in 1888-1892 the building of the new embankment and the widening of the channel made it necessary to take down the old bridge and erect a new one, 80.40 metres long, with three arches. The central arch of the new structure reproduces the original exactly, although only about one-third of the old material could be used again.
 
14 - 46 PONS FABRICIUS.
The stone bridge between the left bank of the river and the island, named from its builder, L. Fabricius, curator viarum in 62 B.C.. The erection of this bridge is recorded in duplicate inscriptions, over the arches on each side, and a restoration in 21 B.C. after the flood of 23 B.C. by the consuls, Q. Lepidus and M. Lollius, in another inscription over the arch nearest the city. It is probable that this stone bridge replaced an earlier one of wood. In the Middle Ages it was known both by its official name and as the pons Iudaeorum because it was close to the Ghetto.

This is the best preserved bridge in Rome, being practically the original structure. It is built of tufa and peperino faced with travertine, part of which has been replaced with brick, and has two semi-circular arches with a smaller one between. The bridge is 62 metres long, and the arches are 24.25 and 24.50 metres wide. The present parapet was constructed in 1679 by Innocent XI, but the original was divided into panels by pilasters supporting four-faced hermae and connected by a bronze balustrade. The two pilasters and hermae at the east end are original, and from them the modern name of the bridge, Ponte dei Quattro Capi, is derived.
 
14 - 47 PONS GRATIANI.
see PONS CESTIUS.
 
14 - 48 PONS HADRIANI.
see PONS AELIUS.
 
14 - 49 PONS IANICULENSIS.
see PONS AURELIUS.
 
14 - 50 PONS LAPIDEUS.
see PONS AEMILIUS.
 
14 - 51 PONS LEPIDI.
see PONS AEMILIUS.
 
14 - 52 PONS MAXIMUS.
see PONS AEMILIUS.
 
14 - 53 PONS NAUMACHIARIUS.
see NAUMACHIA AUGUSTI.
 
14 - 54 PONS NERONIANUS.
A bridge mentioned in the Mirabilia (II), and with further detail in its later editions-pons Neronianus ad Sassiam. It was therefore in a ruined condition in the fifteenth century, and probably in the fourth, as it is not mentioned in Not. Some remains of its piers still exist at the bottom of the river, and may be seen when the water is very low. It crossed the river immediately below the new Ponte Vittorio Emanuele but at a slightly different angle, and connected the campus Martius with the Vatican meadows, the horti Agrippinae and the circus of Nero. It was probably built by Nero to facilitate communication between this district and the city, but whether the name is ancient or only mediaeval, is uncertain. The VIA TRIUMPHALIS ( ran north from it; and in the sixteenth century it was called pons Triumphalis; and Pope Julius II intended to restore it and connect the Via Giulia with it.
 
14 - 55 PONS PROBI.
A bridge mentioned only in the Notitia and Pol. Silvius. It was probably a new construction of the Emperor Probus (276-28 rather than a rebuilding of an older bridge, and situated below the other bridges as it stands last in the list.

It is now generally identified with a still later bridge, which crossed the Tiber a little south of the north corner of the Aventine, and was called in the Middle Ages pons marmoreus Theodosii (Mirab. II) and pons Theodosii in ripa r(o)mea (Graphia 10). From the letters and reports of Symmachus it appears that work was begun on this bridge before 384 but not completed in 387, and while the structure is called novus, it is usually believed to have been a rebuilding of the pons Probi. This bridge was partially destroyed in the eleventh century and almost entirely in 1484. The last traces of its piers were removed from the bed of the river in 1878.
 
14 - 56 PONS SUBLICIUS.
The oldest and most famous of the bridges across the Tiber, built, according to tradition, by Ancus Martius. Its name was derived from sublica, a pile,  and it was constructed of wood without metal of any sort whatsoever. It was under the direct care of the college of pontiffs, its preservation was a matter of religion, and any injury caused by floods was regarded as a prodigium. Such injuries seem to have been not infrequent, but the bridge was always repaired and was standing as late as the fifth century. It is represented on a coin of Antoninus with the contest of Romans and Etruscans, and Horatius swimming in the river. There is no doubt about the antiquity of the bridge, and its method of construction is generally regarded as evidence that it dated from the period before the inhabitants of Latium had developed the working of iron far enough for use in bridge building, a period that may perhaps correspond to the second stage in the growth of the city when it spread out beyond the limits of the Palatine. It is possible that iron was not used simply that it might be easier to pull down the structure when danger threatened from the Etruscan side.

The position of the pons Sublicius has been the subject of much dispute, for the passages in ancient literature, describing its defence by Horatius and the flight of Gaius Gracchus, merely represent it as the ordinary and shortest way from the left bank to the Janiculum. The strongest evidence indicates that it crossed from the forum Boarium just below the later pons Aemilius, the only point where its approach would have been protected by the city wall: and in this case it would have been built in the slack water just below the island, where the original ford was probably situated (see VICUS IUGARIUS).
 
14 - 57 PONS THEODOSII.
see PONS PROBI.
 
14 - 58 PONS TRIUMPHALIS.
see PONS NERONIANUS.
 
14 - 59 PORTA AGONENSIS.
see PORTA COLLINA.
 
14 - 60 PORTA APPIA.
The modern Porta S. Sebastiano, a gate in the Aurelian wall through which the VIA APPIA (q.v.) passed (DMH). All the gates in this wall were named from the roads which passed through them with the possible exception of the PORTA METROVIA(q.v.). Its name is still given correctly in the twelfth century by Magister Gregorius.

It is mentioned frequently during the Middle Ages under several variant names, corruptions of Appia. The existing structure dates for the most part from the rebuilding of Honorius, with various later additions. The lowest part consists of an arch, flanked by square towers, faced with marble blocks that were evidently taken from other buildings, perhaps in part from the neighbouring temple of MARS (q.v.). Both the porta Appia and the porta Flaminia originally had double arches of blocks of travertine, divided by a central pier, traces of which may be seen on the right going out, and semi-circular brick towers. Almost semicircular towers succeeded these: then came the rectangular bastions faced with white marble blocks with circular bosses upon them, the object of which is uncertain which were probably added by Honorius, and the tombs of the via Appia were, no doubt, pillaged, just as were those of the via Flaminia. There is a simple cornice around the whole structure, and on the keystone of the arch is cut the monogram of Christ and three inscriptions in Greek. Above this marble structure is another of brick and tufa faced concrete which continues the square towers below, and which, like the lower part, has been rebuilt or refaced at least once. The curtain over the arch is pierced with two rows of seven small arches each, now walled up, that open into chambers within. Above the top of this part, again, the towers rise in almost circular form to a height of two stories, with rows of five windows in each story. The height of the towers is about 28 metres, and they, as well as the central portion, are surmounted with crenellated battlements. In one of the later restorations the ARCO DI DRUSO (q.v.) was made to serve as the entrance to a vantage court. 
 
14 - 61 PORTA ARDEATINA.
Assumed to be the gate through which the VIA ARDEATINA (q.v.) passed, although such a gate is nowhere mentioned in ancient or mediaeval literature. The most probable line of the road from the porta Naevia of the Servian wall passes through the part of the wall which was destroyed by the erection of the bastione di Sangallo in 1538, and there are indications in the architect's drawings of a small gate at this point. Whether it was like the other principal gates or merely a postern (posterula) is uncertain. Poggio says that it had an inscription of Honorius upon it, but no copy is known. See VIA LAURENTINA.
 
14 - 62 PORTA ARGILETANA.
Mentioned only once, but evidently an entrance into the ARGILETUM (q.v.).
 
14 - 63 PORTA ASINARIA.
A gate in the Aurelian wall on the Caelian, just south-west of the Porta S. Giovanni, through which the VIA ASINARIA (q.v.) passed. This road was of no importance, and the massiveness of the gate may be due to the vicinity of the Lateran palace. The name is given correctly by Magister Gregorius; by other writers of the Middle Ages it was called Porta Asinaria Lateranensis and Porta S. Johannis, who distorts the ancient name into Assenarica. It was closed in 1408, but probably opened again, and not permanently closed until the modern Porta S. Giovanni was built in 1574.

The existing structure of brick-faced concrete is not later than Honorius. It shows traces of several changes of plan or additions in the same material, and is one of the best preserved of all the gates. It has two long bastions with semicircular fronts and three rows of windows, and these bastions are flanked by square staircase towers: and above the archway is the usual long chamber in the masonry with two rows of windows, of which the lower interrupts an earlier embattled breastwork.
 
14 - 64 PORTA AURELIA (.
The modern Porta S. Pancrazio, a gate in the Aurelian wall on the summit of the Janiculum, through which the VIA AURELIA (q.v.) issued. The original name occurs in DMH and later documents, but by the sixth century it was also called Pancratiana and Transtiberina from the neighbouring church of S. Pancratius. The original structure was replaced by Urban VIII in 1644 and this, after being damaged in the siege of 1849, was removed, and the modern gate erected.
 
14 - 65 PORTA AURELIA (.
Mentioned by Procopius as being known in his time as Porta S. Petri. It is mentioned under this name in DMH (403 A.D.) and also in Eins. It is now commonly placed at the east end of the pons Aelius, on the left bank of the river; and Jord., who shares this view, further identifies it with the porta Cornelia, holding that the passage through the fortifications of the MAUSOLEUM HADRIANI (q.v.) was not viewed as a city gate at all; but in this he has not been generally followed. He is, however, right in pointing out that it is incorrect, as Richter and Lanciani still do, to call it Porta S. Petri in Hadrianeo and that the two phrases should be divided. If, however, there was only one Porta S. Petri, the inscriptions published by De Rossi would have belonged to the gate on the left bank of the river. It occurs in the form Porta Aurea in Magister Gregorius, in the Mirabilia and in LPD.
 
14 - 66 PORTA CAELIMONTANA.
A gate in the Servian wall on the Caelian, probably the next south of the porta Esquilina, an arch in the rivus Herculaneus over the line of an ancient street a short distance north-west of the Lateran, replaced the old porta Caelimontana as a similar arch did the porta Capena, but the line of the wall is uncertain here, and the gate may have been somewhat farther west and nearer SS. Quattro Coronati.
 
14 - 67 PORTA CAPENA.
A gate in the Servian wall on the south-west slope of the Caelian. It was near the grove of the Camenae, and from it the via Appia issued. The ancient derivation of the name from the Etruscan Capena is highly improbable, and no satisfactory explanation has been found. The discovery of several portions of the wall in 1867-1868, and of what is probably a pier of the gate itself during the recent construction of the Passeggiata archeologica, has definitely established its location. Domitian is said to have restored the porta Capena, but as a mere gateway would have had no meaning then, the restoration was probably in connection with the extension of the aqua Marcia, which was brought across the Caelian by a branch, the rivus Herculaneus, and ended supra portam Capenam. This aqueduct was at too low a level to have crossed to the Aventine; but there was another and higher branch which crossed the gateway, as is clear from references in literature. The latest investigation, however, of the remains of the arches of this branch shows them to be of the time of Nero. See ARCUS STILLANS.
 
14 - 68 PORTA CARMENTALIS.
A gate in the Servian wall which derived its name from the neighbouring shrine of CARMENTA (q.v.) at the south-west corner of the Capitoline. The location of this gate was very near the intersection of the present Via della Consolazione and the Via della Bocca della Veriti. It appears to have had two openings, and one of these openings was called porta Scelerata because the ill-fated Fabii marched through it into Etruscan territory in 306 B.C..
 
14 - 69 PORTA CATULARIA.
Known only from a statement in Festus. Its size is quite uncertain, as well as its purpose. It certainly was not in the city wall.
 
14 - 70 PORTA CHIUSA.
The modern appellation of a nameless postern in the Aurelian wall immediately to the south of the CASTRA PRAETORIA (q.v.), which served for the exit of the road from the porta Viminalis of the Servian wall (see VIA TIBURTINA). It has a stone curtain with six windows like those of the porta Latina, and is still in a good state of preservation.
 
14 - 71 PORTA COLLATINA.
Mentioned only by Festus: Collatia oppidum fuit prope Romam ... a qua portaRomae Collatina dicta est, who has probably confused Collatina with Collina. The via Collatina diverged to the southward from the via Tiburtina outside the porta Tiburtina.
 
14 - 72 PORTA COLLINA.
A gate in the Servian wall at the north end of the agger, named Collina, because it was on the collis Quirinalis. At this gate the via Salaria and the via Nomentana divided. Some remains of it were found in 1872 in the Via Venti Settembre under the north-east corner of the Ministero delle Finanze. The porta Collina of the Middle Ages is defined as ad Castellum Adriani, and is a gate of the Leonine city. It occurs under the form Collatina in Magister Gregorius.
 
14 - 73 PORTA CORNELIA.
Mentioned only in a seventh (?) century document. It was on the right bank of the Tiber, near the south-west corner of the mausoleum of Hadrian, and spanned the VIA CORNELIA (q.v.), which ran west from the head of the pons Aelius. The date of the first porta Cornelia is not known, but in the time of Procopius a portico was already in existence from near the mausoleum to S. Peter's, by which time also the fortifications of the mausoleum were continued down to the bank of the river, and the porta Cornelia must have formed a passage through them (cf. also PORTA AURELIA). It seems very doubtful whether any remains of this gate survived as late as the sixteenth century.
 
14 - 74 PORTA ESQUILINA.
A gate in the Servian wall, on the Esquiline, at the south end of the agger. It is mentioned several times in ancient literature. According to Strabo the via Labicana and the via Praenestina began at this gate. The divergence of the two roads, however, took place only just before the Porta Praenestina of the Aurelian wall. The porta Esquilina itself, the site of which is marked by the existing ARCUS GALLIENI(q.v.), had probably been removed by the end of the republic. It is probable that the VIA TIBURTINA (q.v.) also issued from this gate.
 
14 - 75 PORTA FENESTELLA.
A gate of some sort, not in the city wall, that seems to have stood on or near the summa Sacra via, close by a shrine of Fortuna, but is otherwise unknown. Fenestella may simply mean 'postern'.
 
14 - 76 PORTA FLAMINIA.
A gate in the Aurelian wall through which the VIA FLAMINIA (q.v.) issued from the city. In the Middle Ages it was also known as Porta S. Valentini, Porta S. Mariae de Popolo, and Porta Flumentana, and after the fifteenth century by its present name Porta del Popolo. It is generally thought that Sixtus IV destroyed the old gate and built that which is now standing, replacing the semi-circular towers of Honorius by square bastions. These bastions, however, were faced with blocks of marble, which had upon them circular bosses similar to those on the bastions of the PORTA APPIA (q.v.). Several of them bore inscriptions and most, if not all, were taken from tombs; see SEPULCRUM P. AELII GUTTAE CALPURNIANI, SEP. GALLONIORUM, SEP. L. NONII ASPRENATIS. It seems therefore very doubtful whether the inscriptions would not have been copied by the antiquaries of the period, had they come to light in the time of Sixtus IV; and it is probably better to suppose the bastions to belong to the time of Honorius, while the semi-circular brick towers which were discovered in 1877 within them may then be attributed to the original gate of Aurelian.
 
14 - 77 PORTA FLUMENTANA.
A gate in the Servian wall, near the Tiber, from which fact the name is derived. It was without doubt in that part of the wall which connected the Capitoline with the river, as the district known as extra portam Flumentanam was evidently in the southern part of the campus Martius, and was occupied, at least in part, by the houses of the wealthy.
 
14 - 78 PORTA FONTINALIS.
A gate known only from two passages in literature and three inscriptions, but assumed to have been in the Servian wall. In 193 B.C. a porticus was built a porta Fontinali ad Martis aram qua in campum iter esset, and this is the only topographical indication that we have, apart from the connection with springs indicated by the name itself. The exact site of the ARA MARTIS (q.v.) is in dispute, but it was in the campus Martius, west of the via Lata, and therefore the view most generally held at present is that the porta Fontinalis was on the north-east side of the Capitoline, between it and the Quirinal, where a road  certainly connected the campus with the forum. It has also been placed farther west, near the Piazza Magnanapoli. The occurrence of this gate in inscriptions indicates that it continued to exist in some form during the empire and was apparently a well-known locality.
 
14 - 79 PORTA IANUALIS.
see IANUS GEMINUS.
 
14 - 80 PORTA LABICANA.
see PORTA PRAENESTINA.
 
14 - 81 PORTA LATINA.
A gate in the Aurelian wall through which passed the VIA LATINA (q.v.) (DMH). It has a single arch of irregular blocks of travertine, with a row of five windows above on the outside, and a sixth in brick, at the south end, surmounted by stone battlements, and flanked by two semi-circular towers of brick-faced concrete (almost entirely rebuilt), which do not rise above the top of the central section. The north tower rests on a foundation of masonry which may have belonged to a tomb. Most of the structure dates from Honorius, including the voussoirs of the arch; though they are often (wrongly) attributed to a restoration of the sixth century, because a cross and circle is sculptured on the inner keystone, and on the outer the monogram of Christ between A and Q. It retained its name throughout the Middle Ages.
 
14 - 82 PORTA LAVERNALIS.
A gate in the Servian wall, named from a neighbouring altar and grove of Laverna. It is mentioned by Varro after the Naevia and Raudusculana, and is therefore generally supposed to have been west of these two on the Aventine, where an ancient road, corresponding to the present Via del Priorato, passed through the wall. According to a scholiast: Laverna viae Salariae lucumhabet, and this has been used to support a theory that this gate was in the northern part of the city and not on the Aventine at all.
 
14 - 83 PORTA MAIOR.
see PORTA PRAENESTINA.
 
14 - 84 PORTA METROVIA.

PORTA METROBI.

PORTA METRONIA

PORTA METRONI

PORTA METROSI

First mentioned in DMH (Metrovia) and then by Gregory the Great.

The metropi via mentioned in the Sylloge Turonensis is the road from this gate to the via Latina. It was in origin only a postern, as it has no towers, and no important road left it; it corresponded to the PORTA QUERQUETULANA (q.v.) of the Servian wall. It was blocked up at an uncertain date-certainly before the middle of the fifteenth century. The Marrana, a stream which passes under the Aurelian wall at this point, was brought into the city by Calixtus II in 1122, and he must have closed the gate at the same time, even though it continues to be mentioned throughout the Middle Ages. An inscription of 1157 recording the restoration of the walls at this point is built into the interior of the tower which blocks it.
 
14 - 85 PORTA MINUCIA.
A gate that is said to have derived its name from its proximity to a shrine or altar of Minucius (Minutus). Nothing is known of any such god, and the name may have arisen from confusion with that of Minucius Augurinus whose monument was outside the porta Trigemina. By some the porta Minucia is regarded as another name for the Trigemina.
 
14 - 86 PORTA MUGONIA.
One of the three gates of the early Palatine city, also called vetus porta Palatii. It was on the north side of the hill, near the temple of Jupiter Stator, where the ridge of the Velia joins the Palatine and the cattle of the early settlers must have been driven in and out. The existing street of imperial times (see CLIVUS PALATINUS) corresponds in general with the early one.

The name appears in several variants-Mugionis (Non.), Mugionia (Festus 14, Mucionis (Varro), Mugonia (Solin.), and is derived by Varro from the lowing (mugitus) of the cattle, but by Festus a Mugio quodam qui eidem tuendae praefuit. The true derivation is not known.
 
14 - 87 PORTA NAEVIA.
A gate in the Servian wall on the Aventine near the silva Naevia. It gave its name to the vicus portae Naeviae, of which the via Ardeatina was probably the continuation beyond the wall. The point where this ancient road seems to have crossed the line of the Servian fortifications is on the east slope of the Aventine, a little south of the church of S. Balbina. 
 
14 - 88 PORTA NAVALIS.
see NAVALIA.
 
14 - 89 PORTA NOMENTANA.
A gate in the Aurelian wall from which the VIA NOMENTANA (q.v.) issued, 75 metres to the south-east of the modern Porta Pia, which was erected by Pius IV in 1564. It retained its ancient name until the thirteenth century; it occurs under the form of Numantia in Magister Gregorius. It had two semi-circular towers, the left-hand one of which, in brickwork attributable to Aurelian, stands on a square brick tomb, while the right-hand one, removed in 1827, stood upon the tomb of one Q. Haterius (See SEPULCRUM Q. HATERII). The analogy of the porta Salaria suggests that the curtain had three large windows over a single arch; and it is the only example of one of Aurelian's original gates which has not been re-faced. Immediately to the south-east there is a small postern.
 
14 - 90 PORTA OSTIENSIS.
A gate in the Aurelian wall through which passed the VIA OSTIENSIS (q.v.). It had acquired the name which it still bears, under the modern form Porta S. Paolo, as early as the sixth century. It seems to be mentioned as porta Latina by Magister Gregorius, who describes what should be the pyramid of Cestius in conjunction with it.

It is probable that, like the porta Appia and the porta Flaminia, it originally had a double arch; and this explains why there are two arches of travertine side by side in the inner gateway, which belongs to a later restoration, as Aurelian does not appear to have constructed any of his gates with courtyards. The two arches of the outer gateway were suppressed at some unknown date, and replaced by a single arch in travertine with a very wide curtain, flanked by two semi-circular brick towers. Such towers should as a rule be attributed to Aurelian, but here they have been strengthened at a later date, and there are considerable traces of alterations throughout, though parts of the original curtain still remain. The rise in level at the time of Honorius has been greatly overestimated.

Adjacent to the gate on the right is the SEPULCRUM C. CESTII (q.v.), and beyond it again was a postern for the exit of the road from the porta Trigemina, which fell into the via Ostiensis. Some of its pavement, discovered in 1824, may be seen in the ditch of the old Protestant cemetery. This postern was, according to some authorities, closed by Honorius; but it can well have happened much earlier.
 
14 - 91 PORTA PANCRATIANA.
see PORTA AURELII (.
 
14 - 92 PORTA PANDANA.
A gate in the fortifications of the Capitoline hill, which was said to have been called porta Saturnia at first, as the hill was called mons Saturnius. According to one story the name was changed because Tatius forced Romulus to an agreement that this gate should always be open to the Sabines-quodsemper pateret; according to another version the attack on the Capitoline was made by the Gauls, and the agreement was with them. This gate is referred to by Dionysius as ἄκ.., through which Appius Herdonius stormed the Capitol in 460 B.C., although he confuses it with the porta Carmentalis. Evidently it was on the Capitolium, not on the Arx, and presumably near the south corner and the Tarpeian rock. In historical times it can hardly have been anything else than a gate in the enclosure of the area Capitolina, perhaps used principally by those who ascended and descended by the CENTUM GRADUS.
 
14 - 93 PORTA S. PETRI.
see PORTA AURELIA (.
 
14 - 94 PORTA PIACULARIS.
So called propter aliqua piacula quae ibidem fiebant, but otherwise wholly unknown. It can hardly have been a gate in the city wall.
 
14 - 95 PORTA PINCIANA.
A gate in the Aurelian wall, famous for its defence by Belisarius. On the keystone is a Greek cross. It was still open in the eighth century, but was closed in the ninth century.

The name had already become corrupt in the seventh century.

It was closed in 1808 and re-opened in 1887. It was originally a postern, and was transformed into a gate by Honorius, who converted the square tower on the right into a semi-circular one, and added the. round tower on the left. At one time it had three stories, as older views show. The arch is of travertine and so was the threshold; one of the slabs of the latter bore the fragmentary sepulchral inscription.
 
14 - 96 PORTA PORTUENSIS.
A gate in the Aurelian wall, rebuilt by Honorius in 403 A.D.. Through it ran the VIA PORTUENSIS (q.v.). It had semi-circular brick towers and two arches, and thus resembled the original form of the portae Appia, Flaminia, and Ostiensis as built by Aurelian (see the view in Nardini, Roma Antica; so that it is not easy to see in what Honorius' restorations consisted. The church of S. Lorenzo de Porta, of which nothing is known, took its name from the gate. It was destroyed by Urban VIII, whose successor, Innocent X, completed the new gate, 453 metres nearer to the city.
 
14 - 97 PORTA PRAENESTINA.
The present Porta Maggiore, a double arch of the AQUA CLAUDIA and ANIO NOVUS (q.v.), built by Claudius over the VIA PRAENESTINA (q.v.) and the VIA LABICANA(q.v.), and afterwards incorporated in the wall of Aurelian (DMH). These two roads separated just before passing under the aqueduct, the Labicana branching off to the right and the Praenestina to the left, and the two archways are at a very slight angle with each other, inasmuch as the course of the roads is at first almost parallel. The whole structure is of travertine, 32 metres high and 24 wide, and the two principal arches are metres high, 6.35 wide and 6.20 deep. In the central pier is a small archway, 5.metres high and 1.80 wide, now closed and almost entirely below the present level of the ground. Above this, and at the same level in the north and south piers, are other arched openings, with engaged Corinthian columns and an entablature. The attic is divided longitudinally by string courses into three sections, each of which has an inscription, the upper one recording the original construction by Claudius but probably revised by Trajan (M61906, 305-318), and the Other two, restorations by Vespasian and Titus.  Immediately outside this gate, between the two roads, is the SEPULCRUM EURYSACIS (q.v.), belonging to the end of the republic. It stood about 3.50 metres below the modern level.

Aurelian incorporated this double arch in his wall, and Honorius changed it very considerably: he certainly built a curtain wall with two openings, thus forming a courtyard. With this building scheme seem to go the square towers at each end on the outside; while the semicircular tower in the middle over the tomb of Eurysaces may belong to Aurelian. The latest ancient road level is 1.50 m. below the modern.

The right-hand opening was blocked at a later date. In 1838 these fourth-century additions were removed and the arches of the aqueduct exposed to view. The gate appears in the sixth century, when we have our first record of it, as the porta Praenestina. This name continued in use during the Middle Ages, along with Sessoriana and Labicana, but gradually gave way to Maior, which has survived in its modern designation.
 
14 - 98 PORTA QUERQUETULANA.
A gate-probably in the Servian wall-which derived its name from a neighbouring oak grove. For the Querquetulanae virae, According to tradition the Caelian was once called mons Querquetulanus, and whether this be true or false, the porta Querquetulana was undoubtedly on this hill, very likely between the porta Capena and the porta Caelimontana, where an ancient road issued from the city, just south of the present S. Stefano Rotondo.
 
14 - 99 PORTA QUIRINALIS.
A gate in the Servian wall which is mentioned only once. The gate was probably just north of the temple of QUIRINUS (q.v.), where an ancient street, corresponding to the modern Via delle quattro Fontane, crossed the line of the wall. On this site remains of steps have been found which may have belonged to the approach to the gate.
 
14 - 100 PORTA RATUMENNA.
A gate said to have been named after an Etruscan charioteer, whose horses, after having won a race at Veii, were frightened, ran to Rome, threw their driver out and killed him at this gate, and finally stopped on the Capitolium in front of a terra cotta statue of Jupiter. It has been explained by some as a gate in the Servian wall between the Capitoline and the Quirinal, by others as an entrance into the Capitoline enclosure, but its site is entirely a matter of conjecture, and it was probably not a city gate at all.
 
14 - 101 PORTA RAUDUSCULANA.

A gate in the Servian wall, mentioned next to the porta Naevia by Varro, who says that it was called raudusculana quod aerata fuit. Festus gives alternative explanations:Rodusculana porta appellata, quod rudis et inpolita sit relicta, vel quia,raudo, id est aere, fuerit vincta, while according to Val. Maximus the name came from bronze horns affixed to the gate in memory of the praetor Genucius Cipus, from whose forehead horns had sprung as he was passing through it on his way to war. This was interpreted as an augury that he would be king if he returned to Rome, and to avoid this disaster to his country, he remained abroad. The most probable explanation of the name is that the gate was strengthened with plates or hinges of bronze. The existence of a vicus portae R(a)udusculanae in Region XII is evidence for the location of this gate on the eastern part of the Aventine. The vicus is generally thought to be a continuation of the VICUS PISCINAE PUBLICAE (q.v.), and if so, the porta was in the depression between the two parts of the hill, at the junction of the modern Viale Aventino and the Via di Porta S. Paolo.
 
14 - 102 PORTA ROMANA.
One of the three (?) gates of the early Palatine city point to a site on the west side of the Palatine at the foot, or lower part, of the CLIVUS VICTORIAE(q.v.), where steps led down to the Nova via. The sacellum Volupiae is wholly unknown. Although the original course of the clivus Victoriae is uncertain, the gate was probably situated a little south of the church of S. Teodoro. Support of this view is sought in the statement of Festus ' qui locus gradibus in quadram formatus est,' which seems to mean that the gate stood on a raised stone area approached by steps on all sides.

According to another explanation than that given by Festus, the name porta Romana is evidence that the Palatine settlement was not called Roma, since this designation of this gate indicated that it opened towards Roma which was then the district of the Velabrum and forum Boarium. Platner pointed out that had this been so, some trace of the transfer of the name to the Palatine would have been found in tradition. The old view, according to which Roma could be connected with ruma, rumon, ' a stream,' made it easy to explain the gate as the river-gate; but if the name is a tribal name, ' why can we not explain the porta Romana most easilyby supposing that this powerful Etruscan clan, or family, dwelt at this north-west corner of the hill-where tradition puts the first settlement, and that the gate, as well as the whole enclosure, got its name from this fact ? ' A still later view is that of Herbig, that Roma is the latinized form of the Etruscan ruma, 'breast' and as a proper name means 'large breasted,' i.e. strong or powerful.

Another inference from Festus' statement is that the real site of the gate had been forgotten, and identified with that of the tomb of the Cincii, probably not far away.
 
14 - 103 PORTA SALUTARIS.
A gate on the COLLIS SALUTARIS (q.v.), said to have derived its name from the temple of Salus. The CLIVUS SALUTARIS (q.v.) probably led up to it, and its site was therefore just south-west of the temple, at the upper end of the present Via della Dataria.
 
14 - 104 PORTA SANQUALIS.
A gate, undoubtedly in the Servian wall, named from the temple of Semo Sancus. It is therefore generally located south of the site of this TEMPLE (q.v.) on the COLLIS MUCIALIS (q.v.), near the present Piazza Magnanapoli.
 
14 - 105 PORTA SALARIA.
A gate in the Aurelian wall, by which the VIA SALARIA (q.v.) left the city. The two being mutually exclusive, Βελισαρία, as Jordan notes, may equally well mean Porta Pinciana.

In GMU 87; R. ii. 405, it is called Porta Sancti Silvestri, because it led to the catacombs of S. Priscilla, where he was buried, though Magister Gregorius gives it under its correct name. It was flanked by two semi-circular towers of brickwork, that of the west tower being perhaps the original work of Aurelian, below which were tombs faced with marble, wrongly described by Nibby as bastions. The arch was of stone, with a brick arcade repaired in opus mixtum above it.

It was seriously damaged in the capture of Rome in 1870; and the removal of its remains led to the discovery under the eastern tower of the tomb of Q. Sulpicius Maximus (see SEPULCRUM Q. SULPICII MAXIMI); while under the western tower was the round tomb of Cornelia L. Scipionis f. Vatieni. The modern gate, built in 1873, was removed in 1921.
 
14 - 106 PORTA SATURNIA.
see PORTA PANDANA.
 
14 - 107 PORTA SCELERATA.
see PORTA CARMENTALIS.
 
14 - 108 PORTA SEPTIMIANA.
The modern gate of the same name, just south of the Palazzo Corsini, on the right bank of the river. The first mention of this gate by name is in the twelfth century, where a fanciful etymology is given-septem Naiades iunctae Iano-which later gave rise to still more fanciful ideas. It was rebuilt in 1498 by Alexander VI a fundamentis, and given its present form in 1798. It is stated that there was an inscription of Septimius (Severus) on the arch before its reconstruction, and it is probable, there- fore, that this was the gate referred to by Severus' biographer: balneaein Transtiberina regione ad portam nominis sui, that is, a gate opening into the area occupied by the buildings of Severus in this region, and afterwards incorporated in the wall of Aurelian. That it is not mentioned in DMH, GMU, or any early mediaeval documents, is strange, but there must have been at least one gate in the wall between the porta Aurelia and the river, and this lies on the line which the wall would naturally have followed.
 
14 - 109 PORTA STERCORARIA.
A gate on the clivus Capitolinus, opening into an alley (angiportus). It was opened once a year, on 15th June, in order that the stercus-ashes, rubbish, etc.-from the temple of Vesta might be removed and thrown into the Tiber. It was probably about halfway up the clivus, but there is no clue to its exact location.
 
14 - 110 PORTA TAURINA.
see FORUM TAURI.
 
14 - 111 PORTA TIBURTINA.
A gate in the Aurelian wall, by which the VIA TIBURTINA (q.v.) left the city (DMH). In the eighth century it was known as Porta S. Laurentii, because it led to the church of that name. There seems to be no trace in the present gate of any work by Aurelian, who may have simply restricted himself to flanking with two towers the arch by which the aquae Marcia, Tepula and Iulia crossed the road. This was rebuilt by Augustus in 5 B.C., and also bears inscriptions of Vespasian and Septimius Severus, relating to the aqueducts. From the bull's head on the keystone of the arch came the name porta Taurina, which we find in the Liber Pontificalis in the lives of Alexander I and Anastasius I as well as in the Mirabilia; while Magister Gregorius gives both porta Tiburtina and porta Aquileia, que nunc Sancti Laurentii dicitur, in his list.

The gate was restored by Honorius, as the inscription over the stone outer arch records. He also built the inner arch  in stone, most of which was removed by Pius IX in 1869, and, according to Lanciani, raised the level, here and elsewhere, from 9 to feet; but the difference between the levels of the Augustan and Flavian periods has now been more accurately determined as 1.38 metre (41 feet), while there was a rise of only 1 cm. up to the time of Honorius.
 
14 - 112 PORTA TRIGEMINA.
An important gate, and one frequently mentioned in ancient literature, in the Servian wall between the Aventine and the Tiber, in Region XI. The exact site is a matter of dispute, since the line of the wall has not yet been determined in this quarter. Some place it below the present church of S. Sabina; others about 40 metres south of S. Maria in Cosmedin, where an arch of tufa, 3.30 metres wide, over a paved road, was found in 1886; and others still at the north corner of the Aventine, near S. Anna dei Calzettari, about halfway between the other two points (See MURUS SERVII TULLII). The last of these theories is the most probable.

The name is best explained by supposing that the gate had three openings, to accommodate the heavy traffic of this district and of the VIA OSTIENSIS (q.v.). Just outside it was a favourite resort for beggars, and a statue of L. Minucius, which has led some to identify porta Trigemina with PORTA MINUCIA (q.v.); see also porticus extra portam Trigeminam. A few inscriptions, on which the name of this gate occurs, have been found.
 
14 - 113 PORTA TRIUMPHALIS.
A gate through which a Roman general, who was celebrating a triumph, passed at the beginning of his march. It is mentioned in five passages , but only the last contains any topographical indications. These seem to point to a location in the campus Martius, not far from the circus Flaminius and the villa Publica. Four views have been held as to the character of this gate and its site: (I) that it was a gate in the Servian wall between the porta Flumentana and the porta Carmentalis; ( that the circus Maximus abutted on the city wall and that the porta Triumphalis was its principal entrance at this point; ( that it was merely a name given to any gate through which the victorious general entered the city, or to a temporary arch erected at any point along the line of march; ( that it was an arch or gate standing by itself in the campus Martius, according to the indications of Josephus noted above. This is the generally accepted explanation at present. For a full discussion and citation of literature, see Morpurgo op. cit.; v. Domaszewski, AR 1909, 70, 73, who thinks the porta Triumphalis was built to take the place in the triumph which previously was held by the porta Carmentalis; and Makin in JRS.
 
14 - 114 PORTA VETUS PALATII.
see PORTA MUGONIA.
 
14 - 115 PORTA VIMINALIS.
A gate on the Viminal, in the middle of the Servian agger. Some remains of it are still to be seen just north of the railway station. The road which issued from it appears to have been of minor importance and passed through the Aurelian wall by a postern south of the Praetorian camp, the so-called PORTA CHIUSA.
 
14 - 116 PORTICUS.
The Roman adaptation of the Greek a-ro, varying more or less in detail, but consisting in general of a covered colonnade formed by a wall and one or more parallel rows of columns, or less frequently by columns alone. There were two prevailing types, one enclosing a rectangular area, either open and laid out like a garden, or occupied by a temple, and the second a long gallery bordering on a street. In either case the porticus might be an independent structure, or attached to adjacent buildings. In the gardens of the rich Romans even the driveways seem to have been under such colonnades. The earliest porticus known to us were built in 193 B.C. by two members of the gens Aemilia, but the period of rapid development in numbers and use began in the last century of the republic and continued in the Augustan era (Stuart Jones, Companion 108-110). The earlier porticus were devoted mainly to business purposes, but during the empire they were intended primarily to provide places for walking and lounging that should be sheltered from sun and wind. For this reason the intercolumnar spaces were sometimes filled with glass or hedges of box. Within the porticus or the apartments connected with them, were collections of statuary, paintings, and works of art, as well as shops and bazaars. A porticus took its name from its builder, its purpose, the structure to which it was attached or of which it formed a part, or sometimes from some famous statue or painting preserved within it (e.g. PORTICUS ARGONAUTARUM).

The campus Martius was particularly well adapted to the development of the porticus, and by the second century there were upwards of twelve in Region IX, some of them of great size, and it was possible to walk from the forum of Trajan to the pons Aelius under a continuous shelter.
 
14 - 117 PORTICUS ABSIDATA.
Mentioned only in the Notitia (Reg. IV) and in the Ordo Benedicti of the twelfth century. The name indicates that it was built around the inner curve of an apse or exedra, perhaps that adjacent to the eastern end of the forum of Augustus, part of which is still in existence. If so, it formed a sort of pendant to the forum Transitorium.
 
14 - 118 PORTICUS AEMILIA.
(a) extra portam Trigeminam, built by the aediles L. Aemilius Lepidus and L. Aemilius Paullus in 193 B.C., and restored in 174 by the censors Q. Fulvius Flaccus and A. Postumius Albinus. Livy also says (ib.) of these censors, Latin, which seems to mean that they paved another porticus running from the porta Trigemina to the temple of VENUS OBSEQUENS (q.v.), on the slope of the Aventine, near the lower end of the circus Maximus. Five years earlier, in 179 B.C., the censor M. Fulvius Flaccus is said to have contracted for a porticus extra portamTrigeminam. What connection these had with each other, or with the Aemilia, is unknown. ' For remains attributed to this building, see EMPORIUM.

(b) A porta Fontinali ad Martis aram built at the same time as (a). Its exact location depends upon that of the PORTA FONTINALIS (q.v.) and of the ARA MARTIS (q.v.), and in any case would not be far north of the Capitoline hill, nor far from the line of the via Lata.
 
14 - 119 PORTICUS AGRIPPIANA.
see PORTICUS ARGONAUTARUM.
 
14 - 120 PORTICUS APOLLINIS.
see APOLLO PALATINUS, AEDES.
 
14 - 121 PORTICUS ARGONAUTARUM.
Built by Agrippa in 25 B.C., probably near the temple of HADRIAN (q.v.). It derived its name from the paintings on its walls of the adventures of the Argonauts, and seems to have been also called the porticus Agrippiana. Cassius Dio calls it στοὰ, and elsewhere speaks of a Ποσειδώνιον, which is probably the same building. It is sometimes identified with the BASILICA NEPTUNI (q.v.), although both names occur in the Curiosum in Reg. IX. It is possible that the porticus may have belonged to a temple of Neptune, although Ποσειδώνιον does not necessarily refer to a temple, and there is no other evidence for the existence of one in this region. This porticus was one of the most frequented in Rome.
 
14 - 122 PORTICUS IN AVENTINO.
see PORTICUS AEMILIA.
 
14 - 123 PORTICUS BONI EVENTUS.
Either built or restored by a certain Claudius, prefect of the city in 374 A.D., around the temple of BONUS EVENTUS (q.v.). Five large capitals of white marble, 1.70 metre high, found between the present church of S. Maria in Monterone and the Teatro Valle, may belong to this porticus and thus mark its position. This site was probably part of the area occupied earlier by the stagnum and horti of Agrippa.
 
14 - 124 PORTICUS IN CAPITOLIO.
see AREA CAPITOLINA.
 

14 - 125 PORTICUS CATULI.
Built by Q. Lutatius Catulus next to his house on the Palatine, after his victory over the Cimbri in 101 B.C. Clodius enlarged the area of this porticus during Cicero's exile, but it was afterwards restored to its original dimensions by decree of the senate.
 
14 - 126 PORTICUS CLAUDIA.
see DIVUS CLAUDIUS, TEMPLUM.
 
14 - 127 PORTICUS IN CLIVO CAPITOLINO.
see CLIVUS CAPITOLINUS.
 
14 - 128 PORTICUS CONSTANTINI.
Mentioned only in Not., but undoubtedly built by Constantine in connection with his THERMAE (q.v.). Its exact location is uncertain.
 
14 - 129 PORTICUS CORINTHIA.
see PORTICUS OCTAVIA.
 
14 - 130 PORTICUS CREP(EREIA?).
Possibly mentioned in one inscription, but very doubtful.
 
14 - 131 PORTICUS CURVAE.
see DOMUS PALMATA, FORUM TRAIANI, AD PALMAM.
 
14 - 132 PORTICUS DECII.
A possible porticus of the Emperor Decius, the existence of which is based on a conjectural restoration of a fragmentary inscription. This inscription was found between the end of the circus Flaminius and the Capitoline hill, together with some architectural remains which were not excavated.
 
14 - 133 PORTICUS DEORUM CONSENTIUM.
Originally built perhaps in the second or third century B.C., as a fragment of tufa walling may show, but in its present form due to one of the Flavian emperors, as is shown by the construction, and restored in 367 A.D. by Vettius Praetextatus, prefect of the city and a vigorous supporter of paganism. This restoration is recorded by an inscription on the architrave. The existing remains are built at an angle against the rock beneath the Tabularium and the supporting wall of the clivus Capitolinus, and consist of two parts, a substructure containing seven small rooms, unlighted and of uncertain use, and above them a platform paved with marble, on which is a row of small rooms, 4 metres high and 3.70 deep, made of brick-faced concrete. Seven of these rooms have been excavated, and there are probably five more still buried. In front of them is a porticus of Corinthian columns supporting an entablature. The colonnade has been restored, but most of the entablature and four of the columns are ancient. The statues of the dei consentes probably stood in the intercolumniations of this colonnade. According to Varro gilded statues of these twelve gods stood in the forum itself in his time.
 
14 - 134 PORTICUS DIVORUM.
see DIVORUM TEMPLUM.
 
14 - 135 PORTICUS EUROPAE.
Near the Saepta, mentioned only by Martial. It derived its name from a painting of Europa on its walls, or perhaps from a sculptured group by Pythagoras. Hulsen identifies it with the porticus Vipsania, apparently because there is little room for a second porticus in this immediate vicinity. Martial's topographical descriptions show that it was not identical with the PORTICUS POMPEI.
 
14 - 136 PORTICUS FABARIA.
Mentioned only in the Notitia in Region XIII. It was probably the headquarters of the dealers in beans, and situated in the district of the warehouses, south-west of the Aventine.
 
14 - 137 PORTICUS GAI ET LUCI.
see BASILICA AEMILIA.
 
14 - 138 PORTICUS GALLIENI.
The Emperor Gallienus is said to have planned a porticus outside the porta Flaminia, that should extend to the pons Mulvius, but this plan was never carried out.
 
14 - 139 PORTICUS GORDIANI.
A structure that Gordianus III is said to have intended building at the foot of the Pincian hill, 1000 feet in length, large enough to extend to the via Flaminia. According to Domaszewski, this is simply an invention, though the site corresponds to that of the templum Solis. 
 
14 - 140 PORTICUS GYPSIANI.
see PORTICUS VIPSANIA.
 
14 - 141 PORTICUS HERCULEA.
see PORTICUS POMPEI.
 
14 - 142 PORTICUS ILICII.
Built in the fifth century by the presbyter Ilicius on the vicus Patricius, between the early church of S. Pudenziana and the site of the later S. Lorenzo in Fonte. Some remains still exist under the houses in the Via del Bambin Gesi.
 
14 - 143 PORTICUS IOVIA.
see PORTICUS POMPEI.
 
14 - 144 PORTICUS IULIA.
see BASILICA AEMILIA.
 
14 - 145 PORTICUS INTER LIGNARIOS.
Built in 192 B.C. extra portam Trigeminam from the fines paid by convicted usurers, and evidently intended for those engaged in the trade in wood which was unloaded at this point on the river bank.
 
14 - 146 PORTICUS LIVIAE.
Begun by Augustus on the site of the house of VEDIUS POLLIO (q.v.) in B.C., and finished and dedicated to Livia in 7 B.C.. It is represented on three fragments of the Marble Plan, and was situated on the north slope of the Oppius on the south side of the clivus Suburanus, between this street and the later baths of Trajan. The porticus was rectangular, about 1metres long and 75 wide, with an outer wall and double row of columns within. In each of the long sides were three niches, the central one square, the others semi-circular. There was also a semi-circular apse on the south side. The entrance was on the north, where a flight of steps, 20 metres wide, led down to the clivus Suburanus. In the centre of the area was something that appears to have been a fountain, but may possibly be the AEDES CONCORDIAE (q.v.) built by Livia. This porticus was very popular and magnificent, the most important in the city after those of the campus Martius. It is still mentioned in Reg. 1but no remains of it have ever come to light.
 
14 - 147 PORTICUS MARGARITARIA.
Mentioned only in Not. (Reg. VIII). As there are numerous inscriptions referring to jewellers, including margaritarii, who had shops ' de Sacra via,' it is often supposed that the porticus Margaritaria may have been on the Sacra via, though the inscriptions are all of the early imperial period. In the space between this street and the Nova via, and east of the Atrium Vestae, are massive foundations of the time of Nero and remains of later brick walls. The former belong to a very large porticus, which served as the approach from the forum to the vestibule of the domus Aurea. The floor of this building was originally undivided, except by its piers of travertine, but partition walls of brick were afterwards put up. Though the main structure was certainly converted into horrea, it is possible that a part of it, as Lanciani thinks, still later became the porticus Margaritaria, in spite of the objections of Hiulsen, who agrees with Jordan in placing the porticus on the boundary of Region VIII, between the forum Boarium and the forum Holitorium.
 
14 - 148 PORTICUS MAXIMAE.
Built about 380 A.D. along the street, possibly the VIA TECTA (q.v.), leading from the theatre of Balbus to the pons Aelius. Fragments of granite columns have been found in the Via dei Cappellari and near Piazza Farnese as well as in the Piazza del Pianto and the Via della Reginella, which may belong to these porticus, and numerous columns and architectural fragments between the Corso Vittorio Emanuele and the Vie Sora and del Pellegrino.
 
14 - 149 PORTICUS MELEAGRI.
Mentioned only in the Notitia in Region IX. It was near the Saepta, to which it may have belonged, and probably derived its name from a statue or painting.
 
14 - 150 PORTICUS METELLI.
Built in 147 B.C. by Q. Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus around the temples of JUPITER STATOR and JUNO (q.v.), which he erected at the same time. It was between the circus Flaminius and the theatre of Marcellus, and contained many works of art. It was removed to make room for the PORTICUS OCTAVIAE (q.v.).
 
14 - 151 PORTICUS MILIARENSIS.
see HORTI SALLUSTIANI.
 
14 - 152 PORTICUS MILIARIA.
Built by Nero within the precincts of the domus Aurea. This reading seems to oblige us to suppose that the porticus was triple and a mile long, or that there were three porticoes, in each of which a walk of a mile could be taken (see PORTICUS TRIUMPHI).
 
14 - 153 PORTICUS MINUCIA.
built by M. Minucius Rufus, consul in 1B.C.. This use of the plural is no evidence that the porticus was double, or that there were two buildings, for Velleius uses it elsewhere of a single porticus, as do other writers. In it Antonius, and probably other officials, set up their tribunals, and it is mentioned in Apuleius and in the Historia Augusta. In the calendars it occurs twice , and in several inscriptions of the first four centuries (see below), but always alone and in the singular.

Chron. places a Minucia vetus among the buildings of Domitian, and Reg. has (Reg. IX). Apparently, therefore, by the time of Domitian at least a Minucia vetus was distinguished from a newer Minucia, presumably the frumentaria of the Notitia. From the time of Claudius the distribution of grain to the populace took place in the porticus Minucia, the earliest evidence being an inscription of his reign or Nero's. This together with two others of pueri alimentarii, the late ascription of frumentatio to Servius Tullius preserved in the Chronograph, and a lead tessera with Minucia on the reverse side, show that the porticus Minucia was divided into 45 ostia or sections, in which definite groups of people received their doles in definite days in the month. The officials of this department are mentioned in three other inscriptions of the second century, and perhaps in two more.

Beginning with the time of Severus the name of the porticus appears in inscriptions of officials of the water department. Whether this indicates that one man held both offices, or that the Minucia now belonged to the department of water and not of grain, or that both offices were housed in one building, or that the Minucia of the inscriptions is the Minucia vetus, while the distribution of grain still took place in the frumentaria, is doubtful. The relation of the vetus and frumentaria is very uncertain, whether they were separate buildings, or parts of one; and when the second building or part was erected. It is natural to assign the frumentaria to Claudius, but the absence of any differentiation, except in the Chronograph and Regionary Catalogue, is curious.

There is also divergence of opinion as to the site of the porticus. The prevailing view at present is that there were two separate buildings, near the porticus Philippi and theatre of Balbus (cf. Not.), one of which, the vetus, enclosed the temple of the Lares Permarini (fast. Praen.) and perhaps that of Hercules Custos and therefore was situated north of the circus Flaminius and east of the porticus Pompei, on both sides of the Petronia stream. The frumentaria Hilsen then places about 200 metres south of the vetus, and identifies with ruins that lie close to the probable site of the crypta Balbi. In the Via dei Calderari, No. 23, two travertine pilasters with engaged columns and the entablature are built into the front of the house, and there are traces of a second row of columns and a wall behind. Drawings of the sixteenth century show that this colonnade had an upper story, with columns standing on the centre of the arches below. There are also blocks of travertine pavement. Hfilsen is further inclined to derive the name of S. Maria de Publico, now known as S. Maria in Publicolis, from the frumentum publicum distributed here.

Another theory is that the porticus lay between the foot of the Capitol and the theatre of Marcellus, thus identifying the two buildings with ruins on the east side of the Piazza Montanara and in the Vicolo della Bufala. This view, however, Lanciani has recently abandoned, chiefly because of the small area available, and thinks that the porticus was farther north-west, between the hill and the porticus Octaviae. There is no conclusive evidence for any of the views that have been held.
 
14 - 154 PORTICUS AD NATIONES.
Built by Augustus, and given this name because it contained statues of all nations. A statue of Hercules stood before its entrance. Its location is unknown, unless it was connected in some way, as an addition or restoration, with the theatre of POMPEIUS (q.v.), in which were set up the statues by Coponius of the fourteen nations over which Pompeius had triumphed. It is, however, uncertain whether these fourteen statues stood inside the theatre, or outside in the PORTICUS POMPEI (q.v.). The porticus ad Nationes of Augustus was probably a new building.
 
14 - 155 PORTICUS POST NAVALIA.
Built in 179 B.C. by the censor M. Fulvius Nobilior, at the same time as the porticus extra portam Trigeminam and the porticus post Spei, behind the older NAVALIA (q.v.).
 
14 - 156 PORTICUS OCTAVIA.
Built by Cn. Octavius in 168 B.C. to commemorate a naval victory over Perseus of Macedonia. It stood between the theatre of Pompeius and the circus Flaminius, and was also called porticus Corinthia from its bronze Corinthian capitals, perhaps the earliest instance of the use of this order in Rome. Augustus restored the building in 33 B.C., and placed within it the standards which he had taken from the Dalmatians, but has left no traces.
 
14 - 157 PORTICUS OCTAVIAE.
Built ostensibly by Octavia, the sister of Augustus, but really by Augustus and dedicated in the name of Octavia at some time after 27 B.C., in place of the PORTICUS METELLI around the temples of Jupiter Stator and Juno. The statement of Cassius Dio that it was built after 33 B.C. from the spoils of the war in Dalmatia, is due to confusion with the porticus Octavia. It was burned in 80 A.D. and restored, probably by Domitian, and again after a second fire in 203 by Severus and Caracalla. It was adorned with foreign marble, and contained many famous works of art. Besides the TEMPLES (q.v.) there were within the enclosure a BIBLIOTHECA (q.v.) erected by Octavia in memory of the youthful Marcellus (Suet. de gramm. 2Plut. Marc. 30), a curia Octaviae, and a schola or scholae. Whether these were different parts of one building, or entirely different structures, is uncertain. It was probably in the curia that the senate is recorded as meeting. The whole is referred to by Pliny as Octaviae opera.

This porticus is represented on the Marble Plan. It enclosed a rectangular area, 1metres in width and somewhat more in length, and consisted of a colonnade formed by a double row of granite columns, twenty-eight in each row in front. The main axis ran from north-east to south-west, and the principal entrance was in the middle of the south- west side. This entrance, of which some ruins still exist, had the form of a double pronaos, projecting inward and outward. Across each front of this pronaos, between the side walls, were four Corinthian columns of white marble, supporting an entablature and triangular pediment. The entablature and pediment and two of the columns of the outer front still exist), and of the inner front two columns and part of the third, with portions of entablature and pediment. The height of the columns of the pronaos is 8.60 metres. Some of the marble antefixae at the lower ends of the ridge tiles also exist. Parts of some of the columns of the south colonnade are also standing, and some of their capitals are built into the walls of neighbouring houses.
 
14 - 158 PORTICUS PALLANTIANA.
Known only from one inscription. The building seems to have been devoted to commercial purposes, but there is no indication of its location.
 
14 - 159 PORTICUS PALMATA.
A portico near S. Peter's which gave its name to the church of S. Apollinaris ad Palmatam.
 
14 - 160 PORTICUS PHILIPPI.
Built without doubt around the temple of HERCULES MUSARUM (q.v.) by L. Marcius Philippus, the stepfather of Augustus, at the same time that he rebuilt the temple, although this is not stated in so many words. It is represented on the Marble Plan, and is mentioned in Reg. IX. It contained some famous pictures, and hairdressers' shops.
 
14 - 161 PORTCUS POLLAE.
see PORTICUS VIPSANIA.
 
14 - 162 PORTICUS EXTRA PORTAM FONTINALEM.
see PORTA FONTINALIS.
 
14 - 163 PORTICUS EXTRA PORTAM TRIGEMINAM.
see PORTICUS AEMILIA.
 
14 - 164 PORTICUS PURPURETICA.
see FORUM TRAIANI.
 
14 - 165 PORTICUS QUIRINI.
Built around the temple of QUIRINUS (q.v.), probably by Augustus when he restored the temple in B.C. It is mentioned only once (Mart. xi. I. 9), but was evidently very popular.
 
14 - 166 PORTICUS SAEPTORUM.
see SAEPTA.
 
14 - 167 PORTICUS POMPEI.
Built in 55 B.C. by Pompeius at the same time as his THEATRE (q.v.), and adjoining its scaena. The purpose of the porticus was to afford shelter for the spectators in case of rain. It is represented on the Marble Plan, and was a rectangular court, about 180 metres long and 135 wide, in which were four parallel rows of columns. The central area was laid out as a garden with shady walks and contained various works of art. Among these was a painting of Cadmus and Europa by Antiphilus, which is not to be identified with the representation of Europa which gave its name to the PORTICUS EUROPAE(q.v.) described by Martial, which, A. Reinach maintains, was a bronze group made by Pythagoras of Rhegium for Tarentum. The CURIA POMPEI (q.v.) in which Caesar was murdered was probably an exedra in this porticus. That the porticus was one of the most popular in the city is clear from the numerous incidental references.

The porticus was burned in the reign of Carinus, and restored by Diocletian, under the direction of Aelius Helvius Dionysius, the prefect of the city, who called one side of the restored structure porticus Iovia, and the other porticus Herculea, in honour of the two emperors Diocletian and Maximian. It may be referred to as the portica Nova, which was ruined by the earthquake of 442. No remains of this building are visible, and the discoveries on its site have been unimportant.
 
14 - 168 PORTICUS SEVERI.
Built by Severus and Caracalla but otherwise unknown. v. Domaszewski holds that it never existed and is an invention of the writer.
 
14 - 169 PORTICUS POST SPEI.
Believed to have been built in 179 B.C. by the censor M. Fulvius Nobilior, at the same time as the porticus extra portam Trigeminam and the porticus post Navalia. It would have extended from the Tiber to the temple of APOLLO MEDICUS(q.v.), probably across the area afterwards occupied by the theatre of Marcellus; but its very existence depends on an alteration of the reading in the passage cited above (see also NAVALIA).
 
14 - 170 PORTICUS THERMARUM TRAIANARUM.
Mentioned in an inscription from Thrace, in which it is stated that a certain document was posted here in 238 A.D. This may be the same porticus as that which was connected with the scrinia, or archives, of the PRAEFECTURA URBANA(q.v.), and restored by a certain Junius Valerius Bellicius at some time in the fourth century. 
 
14 - 171 PORTICUS TRI(UMPHI).
A porticus supposed to have stood near the porta Triumphalis and the Saepta, forming perhaps a part of the latter, on the evidence of two inscriptions recording ' porticus triumphi,' one near Rome and the other at Baiae, which were evidently small private imitations of a public structure at Rome. In both of them the length is recorded, and the number of times necessary to go and return in order to complete a mile.

For a similar inscription from Hadrian's Villa, relating to the so-called Poikile, in which, however, the name triumphi does not actually occur. The insistence on a mile (or a little more) as a convenient measure for a walk (cf. PORTICUS MILIARIA) does not imply that the original porticus Triumphi was a mile long (though it may very well have been some fraction of a mile); and it may therefore quite well have been wholly included in the Villa Publica.
 
14 - 172 PORTICUS VIPSANIA.
Begun by Polla, the sister of Agrippa, and finished by Augustus. It extended along the east side of the via Lata, occupying the western part of the CAMPUS AGRIPPAE (q.v.). It was near the aqua Virgo, and therefore it has hitherto been supposed that it extended nearly as far south as that aqueduct, but recent excavations seem to indicate that a colonnade on the south side of the Via del Tritone was the southern end of the porticus. Farther south no traces of such a building have been found. Hulsen indeed identifies it with the PORTICUS EUROPAE (q.v.). In this porticus was a map of the world, prepared by order of Agrippa; there were laurels in its garden; and detachments of the Illyrian army camped in it in 69 A.D.. In the fourth century its name had been corrupted into porticus Gypsiani (Not. Reg. VII).

In construction it resembled the SAEPTA (q.v.) on the outer side of the via Lata, a little farther south, but it underwent changes in later times, as part of the remains date from the Flavian period, and in the second century the intercolumnar spaces were closed with brick-faced walls, thus making rows of separate chambers. At various points in the area parts of semi-circular arches with travertine pillars and pilasters with Doric capitals have been found, and a travertine pavement and cipollino columns with Corinthian capitals.
 
14 - 173 PORTUNIUM.
The most certain occurrence of this word is in Fronto, where, if the marginal readings be correct, Portunium must mean the immediate vicinity of the temple of Portunus, a place frequented by flower-sellers, rather than the temple itself, as in the case of Dianium, Minervium. It is probable that Portunium may also be the correct reading in Varro; and that the Fortunium of Cur. (Reg. XI) should be changed into Portunium.

The temple of Portunus is mentioned in Varro, and in the calendar, under date of August 17th, the Portunalia, its day of dedication. Portus Tiberinus must mean here a quay along the river, not a warehouse, near the pons Aemilius, and the temple was close by. A relief on the arch of Trajan at Beneventum seems to represent Portunus and other gods at the portus Tiberinus.

This temple, among others, has been identified with the ancient circular temple (III. 4, which was occupied by the church of S. Stephanus Rotundus (1140), S. Stefano delle Carrozze (sixteenth century), and was later called S. Maria del Sole, in the Piazza Bocca della Verita. It is built of white marble, the blocks of the cella being solid, with a peristyle of twenty Corinthian columns. The cella is metres in diameter and stands on a podium of tufa, 2 metres high, in the centre of which is a favissa which belongs to the period of the republic, although the marble covering and the whole superstructure date from the early empire.The entablature is missing, and the roof is modern. On the whole this identification is more probable than any other that has been suggested, but far from certain.
 
14 - 174 PORTUS CORNELI(I).
A warehouse (cf. PORTUS LICINI) for the storage of brick, named after some Cornelius, and known only from its probable occurrence on an inscribed tile of 123 A.D..
 
14 - 175 PORTUS LICINI(I).
A warehouse, named aftersome unknown Licinius and used for the storage of bricks 'expraediis M. Aur. Antonini,' mentioned on numerous inscribed tiles of the time of Severus, and later. There is no indication of its location, and portus in this sense had no necessary connection with the river.
 
14 - 176 PORTUS NEAPOLITANUS.
Mentioned only in a graffito found in the catacombs of S. Sebastiano as a brick warehouse. Its situation is quite uncertain.
 
14 - 177 PORTUS PARRAE.
A warehouse for bricks known only from its occurrence on inscribed tiles of the time of Hadrian. 
 
14 - 178 PORTUS TIBERINUS.
see PORTUNIUM.
 
14 - 179 PORTUS VINARIUS.
A wine warehouse mentioned in three inscriptions, without topographical indications.
 
14 - 180 PORTUS XYSTI.
a warehouse of unknown use and location that is mentioned only in the Codex Theodosianus (xiii. 3. 8), in connection with the archiatri.
 
 
14 - 182 POSTERULAE IN MURO AURELIANO.
see MURUS AURELIANUS.
 
14 - 183 PRAEDIA GALBANA.
The district occupied by the HORREA GALBAE (q.v.). This name occurs only once, in an inscription of the second century A.D.
 
14 - 184 PRAEFECTURA URBANA.
The general offices of the Praefectus urbi during the empire, which consisted of at least three parts-the scrinia or archives, the secretarium or prefect's office, and the tribunalia, where he rendered his decisions. A restoration is recorded in the fourth century by the prefect Junius Valerius Bellicius. The secretarium was called tellurense, which indicates that the building stood in Tellure, or in vico Tellurensi, near the temple of TELLUS (q.v.). No trace of the prefecture remains, but the epigraphical evidence points to a site just west of the thermae Traianae on the Esquiline, within the area now bounded by the Vie di S. Pietro in Vincoli, della Polveriera and dei Serpenti. Adjacent to the praefectura was a porticus,  in which copies of the edicts preserved in the archives were set up for inspection (cf. PORTICUS THERMARUM TRAIANARUM).
 
14 - 185 PRAENESTIUS COLLIS.
A late name for the mons Caelius, occurring only once in extant literature. Like TIBURTIUS COLLIS (q.v.) it is derived from the name of a gate (porta Praenestina) of the Aurelian wall, and is an antiquarian's invention.
 
14 - 186 PRATA FLAMINIA.
According to Livy, an earlier name of the district immediately to the west of the Capitoline hill, afterwards called CIRCUS FLAMINIUS (q.v.), and thickly covered with public buildings before they spread north into the campus Martius proper. It was evidently equivalent to CAMPUS FLAMINIUS (q.v.), but the derivation of the name, while probably connected with the gens Flaminia, is in dispute.
 
14 - 187 PRATA MUCIA.
A plot of ground on the right bank of the river that was said to have been given to Mucius Scaevola by the state in recognition of his heroism in the war with Porsenna. The name was current in Augustus' time, but the location is unknown.
 
14 - 188 PRATA NERONIS.
see CAMPUS NERONIS.
 
14 - 189 PRATA QUINCTIA.
Four iugera of land on the right bank of the river, opposite the  NAVALIA (q.v.), that were said to have belonged to L. Quinctius Cincinnatus. Part of this area was probably open during the early empire, as the name was still in use (see also VATICANUS AGER, VICUS RACILIANI).
 
14 - 190 PRATA VACCI.
see DOMUS VITRUVII VACCI.
 
14 - 191 PRIVATA (DOMUS) HADRIANI.
The house of Hadrian in Region XII (Not.) in which he lived before his adoption, and where Antoninus Pius lived after his adoption by Hadrian. Its place in the list of the Notitia would point to a site near S. Saba, probably towards the south-west.
 
14 - 192 PRIVATA (DOMUS) TRAIANI.
Apparently the house of Trajan in which he lived before his adoption by Nerva. It is mentioned only in the Notitia (not Curiosum) after the Dolocenum in Region XIII, and is therefore supposed to have been situated on the south-western part of the Aventine, perhaps near the monastery of S. Anselmo.
 
14 - 193 PROVIDENTIA AUGUSTA, ARA.
An altar of the goddess who was the incarnation of the imperial care over the Roman empire, mentioned in the acta Arvalium of 38 A.D. and 39 and 43-48; and on coins of the emperors from Nero to Vitellius. 
 
14 - 194 PUDICITIA, ARA.
An altar of Pudicitia (Augusta) erected in honour of Plotina, the wife of Trajan, of which nothing further is known.
 
14 - 195 PUDICITIA PATRICIA, SACELLUM.
A shrine in the forum Boarium. There is no further record of this shrine, and the theory has been advanced that there never was any such, but that the veiled statue of Fortuna in her temple in the FORUM BOARIUM (q.v.) was mistaken for one of Pudicitia, and gave rise to the aetiological story told by Livy which made Pudicitia patricia a contrast to Pudicitia plebeia. If the shrine did exist, it was a locus sacratus, not an aedes, and not to be identified with any existing remains.
 
14 - 196 PUDICITIA PLEBEIA, SACELLUM.
A shrine and altar which a certain Virginia, of patrician birth, who had married a plebeian consul, L. Volumnius, is said to have dedicated in 296 B.C. in a part of her house in the vicus Longus on the Quirinal, after she had been excluded from the worship of PUDICITIA PATRICIA (q.v.) in the forum Boarium. This cult, becoming polluted, postremo in oblivionem venit, but that the altar continued to stand seems to be indicated by a passage in Juvenal, where the context can hardly permit a reference to the forum Boarium.
 
14 - 197 PULVINAR AD CIRCUM MAXIMUM.
see CIRCUS MAXIMUS.
 
14 - 198 PULVINAR SOLIS:
Apparently a sort of an annex to a temple or shrine of the Sun, or possibly the shrine itself, situated near the temple of Quirinus on the Quirinal. It contained an inscription relating to the evening star, Vesperugo, an evidence of Greek influence that puts the erection of the shrine not earlier than the third century B.C. The day of dedication was 9th August, and the exact site is unknown. C. F. Hermann's emendation of Varro, LL v. 52, by which Solis pulvinar is read in the list of ARGEI (q.v.), is very doubtful.
 
14 - 199 PUTEAL LIBONIS PUTEAL SCRIBONIANUM.
A stone kerb, like that of a well, built around a spot in the forum, that had been struck by lightning, by a certain Scribonius Libo, to whom the senate had entrusted the business of looking up such spots and enclosing them in this way. It was a resort of moneylenders, and near the tribunal of the praetor, the arch of Fabius and the porticus Iulia. It is shown on coins,  and perhaps the round base from Veii in the Lateran Museum is an imitation of it. Six blocks of travertine lying near the arch of Augustus, which seem to belong to a circular kerb, have been identified with this puteal, but without any good reason. It has also been suggested with very considerable probability that it is the early well found in the basilica Aemilia, or porticus Gai et Luci.
 
14 - 200 PUTEAL IN COMITIO.
A spot in the Comitium which had been struck by lightning, marked by a wellhead; under this it was supposed that the razor and whetstone of Attus Navius were buried. His STATUE (q.v.) stood not far off.
 
14 - 201 PUTICULI.
The contemptuous name given to the graves into which the bodies of slaves and paupers were thrown promiscuously and putrefied, and to the district where they were situated. This lay outside the agger of Servius and presumably near the porta Esquilina, where public executions also took place, and is described by Horace as occupying a rectangle 1000 feet long and 300 wide, but these dimensions can hardly be intended as exact. This cemetery belonged to the latter part of the republic, and having become a nuisance, was abated by Maecenas, who made it a part of his horti. See CAMPUS ESQUILINUS.

In the block bounded by the Vie Napoleone III, Rattazzi, Carlo Alberto, and the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele, an area about 60 metres square was excavated some fifty years ago, within which were found many rectangular pits, from 4 to 5 metres long, arranged in rows running north and south. These pits were lined with cappellaccio, and were full of bones, ashes and organic matter, and have usually been identified as the puticuli of Horace; but this has been disputed by Pinza, who insists that they did not belong to slaves and members of the proletariate, but to citizens of some distinction.
 
15 Q.
15 - 1 QUADRIGAE PISONIS.
A four-horse chariot erected by order of the senate in honour of a certain Piso Frugi, who is said to have been one of the thirty Roman tyrants. It stood within the area afterwards occupied by the thermae of Diocletian, and was removed when they were built. Domaszewski thinks that the whole story rests on an invention. 
 
15 - 2 QUATTUOR SCARI.
Probably a monumental fountain, representing four fish, or decorated by such a representation, which is said to have stood in the Velabrum, and in Region VIII (Not.). It must, therefore, have been on the boundary between RegionsVIII and XI, perhaps a little south of the Via dei Fienili.
 
15 - 3 QUERQUETULANUS MONS.
According to Tacitus the earliest name of the MONS CAELIUS (q.v.), derived from the oak trees with which the hill was covered. Whether this represents a true tradition, or was simply an invention of the antiquarians to explain PORTA QUERQUETULANA, LARES QUERQUETULANI, etc., is still a matter of dispute. For a coin representing the Querquetulanae virae, see PORTA QUERQUETULANA.
 
15 - 4 QUINQUE TABERNAE.
see SEPTEM TABERNAE.
 
15 - 5 QUIRINALIS COLLIS.
The most northerly of the traditional seven hills of Rome, which stretched from the northern extension of the Esquiline plateau in a south-westerly direction. It is a narrow irregular tongue, separated from the Viminal on the south by the depression now traversed by the Via Nazionale, and sloping off more gradually on the north and north-west to the campus Martius and the valley occupied during the late republic by the HORTI SALLUSTIANI (q.v.). The length of this tongue from the porta Collina in the Servian wall to the collis Latiaris (see below) is a little more than two kilometres. While there was a fairly deep depression between the Capitol and the Quirinal, as is shown by the pavement of the street found beneath the column of Trajan, yet the complete division between the two was made by the great excavations for the forum of Trajan. The highest point of the hill seems to have been within the area now covered by the Royal Gardens, for which considerable levelling off was done in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries (Hulsen, Rom. Antikengarten 85 sqq.). In general, excavations indicate that marked changes of this sort were made both in antiquity (see FORUM TRAIANI) and in more recent times, which have modified both the height and contour of the hill. The height of the Royal Gardens is now 50 metres above sea-level, and that of the Treasury buildings 60.

On the north and west slope of the hill were at least four approaches through cuts or depressions, three of which were marked by gates in the Servian wall, PORTA SANQUALIS, P. SALUTARIS, and P. QUIRINALIS (qq.v.), corresponding to the modern Vie Nazionale, Dataria, and Quattro Fontane. The fourth led up to the top of the hill near the new tunnel under the Royal Gardens.

Like the Viminal, the Quirinal was a collis, not a mons, and the description of the Argei preserves the names of the parts into which it was originally divided-collis Latiaris, the southern end; collis Mucialis, north of the Latiaris from the Via di Magnanapoli to the monte Cavallo; collis Salutaris, from Monte Cavallo to the church of S. Andrea; and collis Quirinalis, from this point east. The derivation of the first two names is unknown, and they, together with Salutaris (cf. SALUS), evidently passed out of use at an early date. Quirinalis then became the proper designation of the whole hill. This name was derived by Roman antiquarians from the inhabitants of the Sabine town Cures, who settled on this hill and were afterwards incorporated in Rome, or from the god Quirinus, who was identified with Romulus.  Whatever the true derivation, there is no doubt that, during the historical period, the hill was regarded as having been named from the god QUIRINUS, whose temple (q.v.) stood near the porta Quirinalis. Festus states that this hill was first called Agonus, but this is probably only an invention of the antiquarians.

The Quirinal is not enumerated among the hills of the Septimontium, and did not become a part of Rome until the organisation of the Four Regions, when, with the Viminal, it formed the third, Collina. There are traces of primitive settlements on this hill, and the tradition that they belonged to Sabines is probably founded on fact. The Servian wall ran along the north-west edge of the Quirinal from the collis Latiaris to the porta Collina, where the agger began, and ran almost due south (see MURUS SERVII TULLII). In the Augustan division of the city the Quirinal fell into Region VI, which was afterwards called Alta Semita, from the main street that ran along the ridge of the hill, and corresponded nearly to the Vie del Quirinale and Venti Settembre. There were many temples on the Quirinal, and it became one of the principal residence districts for the wealthy (cf. DoMus), while a very large portion of its entire area was occupied still later by the baths of Diocletian (for the complete topography and monuments of the Quirinal.
 
15 - 6 QUIRINENSES.
The name given to those who dwelt in a particular street or district, evidently on the Quirinal (cf. PARIANENSES, CICINENSES). They are mentioned only once, but the same district is doubtless referred to in the 'vestiarius a Quirinis' of another inscription. Probably this street or district was near the temple of Quirinus.
 
15 - 7 QUIRINUS, SACELLUM.
An ancient shrine on the Quirinal, near the porta Quirinalis. Whether this was on the site of the later aedes Quirini is not known.
 
15 - 8 QUIRINUS, AEDES.
A temple on the Quirinal hill, to which it gave the name, said to have been vowed by L. Papirius Cursor when dictator in 325 B.C., and dedicated in 293 by his son, who adorned it with a profusion of spoils. After the Romulus legend was developed and he was identified with Quirinus, the building of the temple was said to have been commanded by Romulus when he appeared to Proculus Julius. The record of a session of the senate held in aede Quirini in 435 B.C. is regarded as fictitious, but in any case the temple was one of the oldest in Rome. Whether it stood on the site of an earlier ara (see above) cannot be determined. In front of it grew two myrtle trees, called patricia and plebeia, of which the former flourished as long as the senate retained its power unimpaired, but withered away during the Social war, while the other became healthy and vigorous.

In 206 B.C. the temple was struck by lightning, and again in 49 when it was much injured if not almost destroyed. It must have been repaired almost at once, for the senate erected in it in 45 a statue to Caesar as the Θε. A final restoration was completed by Augustus in B.C.. The day of dedication of the original temple was not 29th June, the later date, but 17th February. Mommsen's view has been proved to be correct by the discovery of the pre-Caesarian calendar at Antium, where we find the Quirinalia entered on 17th February. The 29th of June, on the other hand, was only added to the calendar by Caesar. The same calendar, like that of the Arvales, records another festival of Quirinus on 23rd August, and of Hora Quirini also.

The temple was of the Doric order, dipteral-octostyle, with a pronaos, and a porch in the rear. It had seventy-six columns, two rows of fifteen each on the sides, and a double row of eight at each end, counting those on the sides again, and was surrounded by a porticus. A relief of the second century, found within the area of the baths of Diocletian, represents the facade of this temple as that of a Doric tetrastyle, with Romulus and Remus taking the auspices on the pediment. Occasional references to it are found in literature, down to the fourth century. Its site is determined by the discovery of inscriptions to be on the north side of the Alta Semita and probably in the eastern part of the present gardens of the royal palace, near the edge of the hill.
 
16 R.
16 - 1 REGIA.
The house which Numa is said to have built, and either lived in. It is also said to have been the house of the pontifex maximus . On the other hand, the regia could not have been the dwelling-house of the pontifex maximus, for in historical times it was a consecrated fanum containing sacraria, until Augustus transferred this residence to the Palatine.

During the republic, therefore, the regia was the official headquarters of the pontifex maximus, and its position, directly north-west of the aedes Vestae, is made certain by the existing ruins. In it was a shrine of Mars, sacrarium Martis, in which were kept the hastae and ancilia of that god. Certain sacrifices are recorded as having been performed in the regia, a sheep was offered to Janus on 9th January by the rex sacrorum, and the blood of the October horse was sprinkled on its hearth and the head fastened on its wall. The archives of the pontifices were probably kept here, for the tablets from which the annales maximi were edited, were hung on the outer wall of the building, and it was the place of assembly of the college of pontiffs, and at times of the Fratres Arvales. ATRIUM REGIUM (q.v.) is referred to the regia by Jord..

The regia was burned and restored in 148 B.C.; and again in 36 B.C., when the restoration was carried out by Cn. Domitius Calvinus who created a building, small but of unusual beauty. The evidence of the ruins shows that the statement of Tacitus that the regia was destroyed in the fire of Nero is greatly exaggerated. The building is represented on a fragment of the Marble Plan, and is mentioned in the third century and probably in the fourth.

The existing ruins belong to three periods, the republican, the early imperial and the mediaeval. Of the superstructure of the first two periods almost nothing remains except the lowest courses of some of the walls and many architectural fragments. The republican remains are found only in the foundations of the imperial structure, the ground plan of which is practically identical.

There are traces of the repairs of 148, while the walls of cappellaccio probably date from well before the fire of 390 B.C. After the restoration of Calvinus the regia was shaped like an irregular pentagon, filling the space between the Sacra via, the temenos of Vesta, and the temple of Julius Caesar, and consisting of parts unsymmetrically joined together. The principal part was trapezoidal, with a mean length of about 22 metres and a width of 8 metres, and was built of solid blocks of white marble, with a pavement of marble slabs. Some fragments of the cornice in this material are preserved. On the west and south sides were inscribed in four double panels the fasti consulares, and on the pilasters of the south side, the fasti triumphales, and many of the fragments of these blocks have been preserved and are now in the Palazzo dei Conservatori.

The interior was divided into three rooms, in the largest of which was found a pavement of Anio tufa blocks (perhaps therefore post-Sullan), and in this a circular substructure of grey tufa, 2.53 metres in diameter, dating from the early period.  There was a doorway in the original building, but it was roughly widened for the mediaeval house, and two rude steps placed in front of it.

The irregular space between this part of the regia and the Sacra via was occupied by an open court, with a covered ante-chamber at the east end, where the main entrance seems to have been. The greatest width, north and south, of the area of the regia was about 27 metres, and the least about metres. The court was paved with slabs of marble, and in it are two wells and a cistern, which may date from a very early time, though Frank assigns the greater age to the main (trapezoidal) building, and contained fragments of various kinds. Near the cistern is a base of tufa blocks, with traces of a circular superstructure. To this may belong the round block of peperino with the inscription A. COVRI.  At the south-west end of the marble building is a small room, and near this in the wall was found the inscription of the SCHOLA KALATORUM (q.v.), but no identification of any of the existing divisions of the ruins with any of the parts of the ancient regia mentioned in classical literature is possible.

In the seventh or eighth century the regia was transformed into a private house, the traces of which are visible in all parts of the area, but especially along the Sacra via, where the house was approached by a flight of two steps roughly made of marble and travertine, on which stood a row of cipollino columns taken from some ancient building.
 
16 - 2 REG(IO) MAR(TIS).
A statue of the helmeted Mars, represented on a lead plate, which probably indicated the neighbourhood of the TEMPLUM MARTIS (q.v.) outside the porta Capena, on the extreme south of the city.
 
16 - 3 REGIONES QUATTUOR.
The four regions-Suburana, Esquilina, Collina, Palatina-into which the city, within the pomerium, was divided during the republic. Tradition ascribed to Servius Tullius the division of the inhabitants of Rome into four tribus, which, while purely a political division so far as our knowledge goes, are usually supposed to have been based on the earlier local division described by Varro. This city of the Four Regions was a stage of development intermediate between the Palatine settlement and what is ordinarily called the Servian city, a stage that was the result of the union of the Palatine and Esquiline settlements, that is shown by archaeological evidence to have taken place about the middle of the seventh century B.C.. The division into four regions remained in force until the reorganisation of Augustus.

All the area within the POMERIUM (q.v.) was included in the regions except, apparently, the Capitoline, perhaps because this hill was always regarded as the citadel and religious centre of the city, and not as a local division. Our knowledge of the area of the regions is derived principally from Varro's description of the location of the sacraria of the ARGEI (q.v.), a description based quite certainly on documents which represented the topographical conditions of the third century B.C. His incomplete and somewhat obscure account distributes twenty-seven sacraria among the four regions, eleven of which can be located with reasonable certainty, and thirteen are conjectural, while three are wholly unknown. The outer boundary of the regions was the pomerium, which coincided with the Servian wall down to the time of Sulla, except that the Aventine was excluded. Region I, Suburana, comprised the Sucusa, Ceroliensis and Caelius, according to the generally accepted view, although this is a matter of sharp dispute ; II, Esquilina, the Oppius and Cispius; III, Collina, the Quirinal and the Viminal; IV, Palatina, the Palatium, Velia and Cermalus. It is not possible to draw the inner boundaries of these regions with exactness, nor is it certain that all four met at a common point, near the Velia, as is sometimes maintained.

The discussion of the four regions involves that of the Argei, and the literature of the subject includes both topics to a greater or less degree.
 
16 - 4 REGIONES QUATTUORDECIM.
The fourteen regions, or wards, into which Augustus divided the city when he reformed the municipal administration in 7 B.C.. Thereafter Rome was often designated as urbs regionum xiv or urbs sacra regionum xiv. These regions were divided into vici, and a new set of magistrates, magistri vicorum, drawn from the common citizens, was instituted, originally four from each vicus, but afterwards forty-eight from each region regardless of the number of vici, and two curatores. These magistrates had to do mainly with the religious ceremonies of the regions, while the regular municipal administration was still in the hands of higher officials. The regions were fourteen in number, twice as many as the traditional hills of Rome, and were known originally only by number, but the names found in the Regionary Catalogue became current at various later periods, doubtless as a result of popular usage. This division into fourteen regions continued in force until the seventh century when an ecclesiastical division into seven regions was introduced and opened the way for the entirely different organisation of the Middle Ages.

From the Regionary Catalogue it is possible to determine with some precision, in most cases, the limits of these regions in the fourth century, but it is a different matter to do this for the Augustan division, inasmuch as it is certain that the outer boundaries at least had been extended at some points during the intervening three hundred years, and our additional information concerning earlier conditions is extremely scanty. What little there is must be derived from ( the evidence of terminal cippi that have been found as to successive extensions of the POMERIUM (q.v.) under Claudius, Vespasian and Hadrian; ( Pliny's description of the area of the city in his day-a passage full of difficulty and uncertainty; ( the customs boundary of the city, marked by cippi, of which five have been found, dating from the time of Commodus; ( the list of vici on the so-called Capitoline Base, inscribed in 136 A.D.. The line of the Servian wall was not always a boundary between adjacent regions, for while III, IV, VIII, XI appear to have always been limited by that line on the inside, and the same was true of V, VII, IX on the outside, I, II, VI, XII, XIII embraced ground on both sides. Nor did the wall of Aurelian and the Augustan or later outer boundaries everywhere coincide.

The following short description of the regions is based on the latest and most generally accepted view of their boundaries, as drawn by Hulsen.

I, Porta Capena, so called from the gate in the Servian wall, an irregularly shaped district, beginning at the east corner of the Palatine, bounded on the west by that hill, and running south to some distance beyond the porta Capcna between two lines not more than 150 metres apart on the average. Beyond the Aventine it widened considerably and extended to the bank of the Almo, some distance beyond the Aurelian wall. It is possible that Regions I, II, III, IV and X all met at one point near the Meta Sudans.

II, Caelimontium, including most of the Caelian, and bounded by Region I, the Aurelian wall, and the straight street that ran from the Colosseum to the porta Caelimontana and the porta Asinaria.

III, Isis et Serapis, so called because of the temples to these two Egyptian deities erected within its area. It included the Colosseum valley and the Oppius, and was bounded by Region II, the Servian wall, the clivus Suburanus from the porta Esquilina west, and the prolongation of its line westward to a point north of the Colosseum, where it turned south to the Meta Sudans. This line from the porta Esquilina was the southern limit of Region IV.

IV, Templum Pacis (see above), including the Sacra via from its beginning to the atrium Vestae, the Subura, and the Cispius. Its boundaries were that just described, the Servian wall, the vicus Patricius from the porta Viminalis to a point near the Subura, where it seems to have curved to the north, then passed between the forum of Nerva and that of Vespasian, and embraced the northern part of the forum.

V, Esquiliae, the eastern district of the city, lying outside the Servian wall and north of the via Asinaria. In the time of Augustus the campus Viminalis, and probably all the district between the via Tiburtina and the via Salaria, lay outside the city (Plin. loc. cit.), and none of it was included in Region V until after the time of Vespasian. The boundary was about 300-400 metres beyond the Aurelian wall on the south, but in the fourth century coincided with it from a point south of the via Labicana to the south side of the castra Praetoria.

VI, Alta Semita, so called from a street that followed the ridge of the Quirinal, like the present Via Venti Settembre. Bounded on the south and south-west by Region IV it originally included the Quirinal from the imperial fora to the Servian wall between the porta Viminalis and the porta Collina, and extended far enough west to take in the horti Sallustiani, and north beyond the line of the Aurelian wall. In the fourth century, after the castra Praetoria had been made a part of the city, the boundary of this region coincided with the Aurelian wall from the porta Salaria south round the castra. From a point a little west of the porta Pinciana, the boundary ran almost due south to the forum of Trajan.

VII, Via Lata, so called from the name given to the southern end of the via Flaminia, between which and the western boundary of VI this region lay.

VIII, Forum Romanum vel Magnum, an irregular region, including the forum, though not the whole of the Sacra via, the imperial fora, the Capitol, and the district south of it, extending to a line drawn north of the forum Boarium through the Velabrum and to the east end of the atrium Vestae.

IX, Circus Flaminius, including all the territory between the Servian wall, the via Flaminia and the Tiber.

X, Palatium, the Palatine, within the lines described by Tacitus as those of the first POMERIUM (q.v.).

XI, Circus Maximus, a very irregular region, containing the circus Maximus, and bounded by the Tiber, and Regions IX, VIII, X,XII and XIII.

XII, Piscina Publica, so called from a district within its limits that had formerly contained a public reservoir or swimming bath. This region included the eastern part of the Aventine, and was bounded by the via Appia and Region I, the Aurelian wall, and the vicus portae Raudusculanae and the vicus Piscinae Publicae.

XIII, Aventinus, the Aventine and the district south of it, between the boundaries of XIIand XI, the Aurelian wall, and the Tiber.

XIV, Trans Tiberim (Trastevere), all the city on the right bank of the Tiber, together with the insula Tiberina. The limits of this region cannot be determined, but it included much more than the territory within the Aurelian wall. It extended south as far as the temple of FORS FORTUNA (q.v.) and north far enough to include the Vatican district.
 
16 - 5 REGIUM ATRIUM.
see ATRIUM VESTAE.
 
16 - 6 REMORA.
the name which Remus would have given to Rome if he had been its founder. This is probably a mere variant for REMORIA (q.v.), required by the metre 
 
16 - 7 REMORIA.
A locality connected with the Remus legend. According to what is probably the earliest form of the tradition, it was a hill near the Tiber, five miles down stream from the Palatine, where Remus wished to build the future city, and where he was buried. The same tradition is preserved in Festus.

Uncertainty as to the place where Remus took the auspices is seen in the words of Festus, following those just quoted, where we read that some believed the Aventine was the place appointed, others the Remoria.

Finally, in Plutarch's version, the highest part of the Aventine is the auguraculum and burial place of Remus, but under the names ῾Ρε.. Whatever the connection between these variants may be, in historical times Remoria was a part of the eastern Aventine near S. Balbina, and was apparently identified with Saxum, 'The Rock,' the spot where Remus took the auspices.
 
 
16 - 9 RIPA VEIENTANA.
The right bank of the Tiber, northwards from the pons Aurelius. Although this name is found only in inscriptions of the empire, it was probably in use from very early times, and may then have included much of the right bank between Rome and the sea.
 
16 - 10 RIVUS HERCULANEUS.
see AQUA MARCIA.
 
16 - 11 ROMA QUADRATA-1.
A later name of the four-cornered Palatine city in augural theory. (see POMERIUM.)

In the extended sense the term may be of comparatively late origin, for it could not arise until Palatium and Cermalus were one; and in the lists of the ARGEORUM SACRARIA (q.v.), which date probably from the third century B.C., they are still separate. The comparison of the outline of the Palatine with that of the Terremare is specious, but is clearer in the plans than on the site, which has been much transformed by the great imperial buildings, which have given it a rectangular outline.

See Jord. according to which the imperial Roma quadrata was a square plot of ground containing the temple of Apollo, the atrium beside it (see DOMUS AUGUSTI) and the area in front of it.
 
16 - 12 ROMA QUADRATA (.
A shrine in which were kept various sacred objects connected with the foundation of the Palatine city, which is probably represented on a fragment of the Marble Plan, where a small four-sided structure stands in the AREA APOLLINIS. This passage has generally been taken to fix Roma quadrata in the AREA PALATINA (q.v.). We may note that a number of dedications to early deities, Anabestas, Marspiter, Remuriene and the elogium of Fertor, all of them archaistic inscriptions, perhaps of the time of Claudius, which have been connected, not unnaturally, with the site of Roma quadrata, were also found between the summa Sacra via and the mediaeval ruins which were formerly believed to belong to the temple of Jupiter Stator, but have since been excavated by Boni, and ascertained to be the foundations of two towers, which he conjectures to be the Turres Cencii, domnae Bonae et Unquitatis, which were demolished by Calixtus II in 1119. The foundations of a triumphal arch also came to light (see ARCUS DOMITIANI (). A statue of the fifth-fourth century B.C., (perhaps of the school of Timotheus), which has generally been interpreted as a Victory, was also found here; but the lack of wings is against the identification.

As we have seen, the site of the AREA PALATINA (q.v.) has been generally connected with that of Roma quadrata (; but inasmuch as the latter is stated by Festus to be ante templum Apollinis, it is difficult to find a place for it if we accept (as on other grounds we are probably right in doing) the theory of Pinza and Richmond as to the latter. Richmond's attempt to locate the area in front of the temple, and Lugli's placing of it to one side do not seem successful. It may indeed be better to accept Reid's and Leopold's idea ' that the name Roma quadrata, as restricted to the mundus, is a purely antiquarian invention' founded only on Plutarch.

During the ludi saeculares of 204 A.D. a tribunal was erected 'ad Romam quadratam' for the distribution of suffimental (incense). As another was erected in area Apollinis, it is probable that Roma quadrata was at a little distance from it. See the references on ROMA QUADRATA (.
 
16 - 13 ROMULEUS MONS.
A name found once in the third century. It was probably a late colloquial designation of the Palatine, but if so, its use in this passage adds nothing to its precision, but rather detracts from it.
 
16 - 14 ROMULUS DIVUS, TEMPLUM.
A building erected by Maxentius in honour of his deified son Romulus and generally identified, until recent years, with the circular brick structure on the east side of the Sacra via between the temple of Antoninus and Faustina and the basilica of Constantine. On the epistyle of the porch a fragmentary inscription, in which the name of Constantine occurred, which was still visible in the sixteenth century, has led to the supposition that he took possession of the building after the defeat of Maxentius; for other theories see PAX, TEMPLUM; PENATES, TEMPLUM; URBIS FANUM.
 
16 - 15 ROMULUS, AEDES.
see CASA ROMULI.
 
16 - 16 ROSTRA.
The original platform from which the orators addressed the people. It took its name from the beaks of the ships captured from the people of Antium in 338 B.C. with which it was decorated. It was situated on the south side of the Comitium in front of the Curia Hostilia in close connection with the SEPULCRUM ROMULI (q.v.), i.e. between the Comitium and forum, so that the speaker could address the people assembled in either. It is spoken of as the most prominent place in the forum. It was consecrated as a templum, and on it were placed statues of famous men in such numbers that at times they had to be removed to make way for others; while the COLUMNA ROSTRATA C. DUILII (q.v.) stood on or close by it.

The name rostra vetera is only used in Suet. Aug. 100: bifariam laudatus est, pro aededivi Iulii a Tiberio et pro rostris veteribus a Druso; where it refers to the rostra transferred by Caesar to the north-west end of the forum in contradistinction to the rostra at the temple of Divus Iulius; though it is commonly and conveniently used to signify the republican rostra in contradistinction to the rostra of Caesar.

Excavations in the Comitium have brought to light remains which must be attributed to the republican rostra, though much doubt attaches to their exact interpretation. 'It would appear that about the middle of the fifth century B.C. the Comitium was separated from the forum by a low platform, upon which stood the archaic cippus, the cone, and probably an earlier monument, represented by the existing sacellum. After the fire that followed the Gallic invasion, the first platform was replaced by a higher, to which a straight flight of steps led up from the second level of the COMITIUM (q.v.). A wall, 3 metres in front of these steps, perhaps formed part of the rostra. In this platform was an irregular space, bounded by walls on each side, enclosing the monuments in question. Whether remains of the platform of this period exist, or whether the cappellaccio slabs which have been attributed to it are really the bedding for the tufa slabs of the next period, is a moot point. According to another theory, a kerb along the northern edge of the cappellaccio pavement in front of the basilica Aemilia marked the front line of the original rostra.

There is no trace of any alteration in the rostra corresponding with the third level of the Comitium; but in correspondence with the fourth we have a reconstruction of the rostra on a new plan. 'Its remains consist (I) of a curved structure of large blocks of Monte Verde tufa, forming two steps about 35 cm. high, which rested on a foundation of cappellaccio (grey) tufa cm. high; ( of a low corridor or canalis, 1 metre wide and about 75 cm. high, parallel to the curved line of the steps and about 9 metres from them; ( of a platform, or suggestus, to the west of the niger lapis, and ( of a row of shafts, or pozzi, running east and west, about 6.75 metres distant from the platform. The portion of the platform ... .on which the curved flight of steps rested, lay about one metre above the floor of the Comitium.' It has a fine pavement of Monte Verde tufa, along the front of which runs a raised kerb. According to one view these monuments are attributable to the period of Sulla. Whether the 'Tomb of Romulus ' was hidden from view at this period or later, is uncertain.

The curved front of the rostra, as represented by the canalis with the beaks of ships with which it was adorned, is held to be represented in a coin of 45 B.C. of Lollius Palikanus. The arcade at the back of the rostra Augusti, which Boni has called the rostra Caesaris, belongs to the time of Sulla, and is simply a low viaduct to support the CLIVUS CAPITOLINUS (q.v.) and a street branching off from it.
 
16 - 17 ROSTRA AEDES DIVI IULI.
see AEDES DIVI IULII.
 
16 - 18 ROSTRA AUGUSTI.
The rostra of the imperial period, situated at the north- west end of the forum. Caesar had decided on their removal, but his definite plan seems not to have been carried out, or at least the dedication not to have taken place until after 42 B.C.. If we consider the point at which Caesar's body was burnt, it will seem natural that Mark Antony's oration should have been delivered at the opposite end of the forum. Augustus completed them and he is represented seated on the rostra in a coin. A funeral oration in honour of Augustus was delivered from this rostra by Drusus.

Cassius Dio describes two magnificent ceremonies which took place on the rostra, the reception of Tiridates by Nero and the funeral ceremony of Pertinax.

We know of the existence of statues in rostris of Augustus, where he speaks of the rostra elliptically ' celeberrimo fori,' just as the old rostra had been called oculatissimus locus; and even Ammianus Marcellinus calls it perspectissimum priscae potentiae locum; Claudius Gothicus, and Stilicho. In a relief on the arch of Constantine columns with statues standing upon them are, as a fact, seen behind the rostra.

The existing remains of the rostra belong to four main periods: ( that of Caesar, the concrete core of whose rostra, 3.50 metres high, is preserved for a length of over metres, built against, and in all probability on top of, the line of arches supporting the CLIVUS CAPITOLINUS (q.v.).

( that of Augustus, who incorporated the core of the rostra of Caesar in a larger and higher core, which served as the foundation for the curved flight of steps on the west extending across the whole length of the rostra, and forming a monumental approach to the platform itself. The front of this enlarged core was faced with a wall of the finest Augustan brickwork; and a wall faced with the same material is to be found in the foundations of the north side of the platform itself, and possibly in the front also. The platform extended metres forward from the western brick wall, and its front was about 24 metres in length and 3 high. The front and side walls are built of opus quadratum of tufa, faced with marble; bronze beaks in two rows were let into this facing. These walls have been restored by Boni up to their original height. The travertine paving slabs of the platform were supported by beams of the same material resting on these walls and on three rows of travertine piers, which were in later times partly replaced and partly strengthened by brick piers and walls. A marble balustrade extended along the sides and front, in the centre of which there was an opening.

The theory outlined above is confirmed by an interesting detail. The plans of the central area of the forum omit two more ' pozzi rituali ' of the line in the right bottom portion, which take it down as far as the front of the original rostra of Caesar. When the rostra were enlarged by Augustus, these two last pozzi, together with the first shown in the plan, were suppressed, and a new line created, which ran along the front of the new facade. (According to the theory previously current, it was to Trajan that the rectangular platform should be attributed.)

( that of Septimius Severus, in connection with the erection of whose arch most of the north wall of the rostra was removed, the north part of the back wall of brick-faced concrete cut down to the level of the pavement, and the so-called hemicycle formed by cutting back the brick-faced core of the steps for at least more than half its length, so that its curve should correspond with that of the flight of steps behind.

The northern half of the hemicycle was decorated with slabs of Porta Santa marble, with pilasters of africano at intervals, and a plinth of Pentelic marble, while a richly decorated curved cornice probably belonged to a colonnade along the front of it. The work was not completed at the southern end. A small triangular court was thus formed, from which steps led up to the platform; and this and the space under the rostra were paved with tiles overlying an earlier pavement of herring-bone brickwork; some of them bear stamps of the Severan period. According to an older theory, now generally abandoned, the hemicycle was the Graecostasis of the time of Caesar, while Mau held it to be his rostra.

( that of about 470 A.D. (?), when the rectangular part of the rostra was lengthened by a trapezoidal brick addition at the north end, the facade of which was also decorated with beaks. An inscription which ran the whole length of the enlarged platform recorded a restoration by the praefectus urbi, Junius Valentinus, in honour of Leo and Anthemius (?), possibly after a naval victory over the Vandals.

The two marble balustrades or plutei which now stand in the open area of the forum near the column of Phocas are generally supposed to have formed part of the rostra, standing either on each side of the approach or at the ends of the platform. They were, as a fact, found where they now stand, roughly erected on blocks of travertine. They date, according to one view, from the time of Domitian; but most authors refer them to Trajan, and explain them as representing Trajan's charity in providing for the support of poor children, by investment of large sums in mortgages on farms, and the destruction by his orders of the registers of taxes on inheritances already due. They have recently been assigned to the reign of Hadrian and attributed to the enclosure of the STATUA MARSYAE (q.v.).

To topographers they are interesting mainly for the representation of the buildings of the forum in the background.

In the first relief (that facing down the forum) the emperor is seen on the rostra in the foreground. Then comes the temple of Vespasian (that of Concord was probably on the first section, which is lost), with six Corinthian columns, then the temple of Saturn, with six Ionic columns, and an arch of the Doric arcade of the Tabularium between them. Beyond are the lower arcades of the basilica Iulia; while the statue of Marsyas and a sacred fig-tree in an enclosure (both of which stood close by; see STATUA MARSYAE, FICUS, OLEA, VITIS) terminate the picture, as they begin the representation on the second relief, serving obviously as a point de repkre. After them comes a series of arcades, like those on the first relief, representing the basilica Aemilia; then the Argiletum; then the Curia with a broad flight of steps in front of it (after its restoration by Domitian), wrongly represented as having a facade of five columns; and finally a triumphal arch, probably situated on the clivus Argentarius, with the rostra in the foreground once more. The recurrence both of the rostra and of the Marsyas shows that the two reliefs were intended to form a complete circle; while the temple of Caesar and the temple of Castor and Pollux, which are not represented, are precisely those which the speaker would have had before his eyes. It is also to be noticed that the reliefs on the other (outer) side of each pluteus, representing the sheep, swine, and bull, the animals sacrificed in the suovetaurilia, are on quite a different scale, and easily visible from the level of the forum; whereas the reliefs on the inner side are on a much smaller scale, and only visible from close by. The relief of the suovetaurilia was imitated on the base of a column erected close by to commemorate the decennalia of Diocletian, for the reliefs of which.

The theory that the reliefs belonged to a monument erected in honour of Trajan and represent only the buildings on the east side of the forum is due to a misinterpretation of a passage of Pliny; while, according to another theory, this monument stood near the tribunal praetoris, and the reliefs represent the buildings on the west side of the forum.
 
16 - 19 ROSTRA CAESARIS.
see AEDES CASTORIS.
 
16 - 20 ROSTRA DIVI IULI.
see AEDES DIVI IULI.
 
16 - 21 ROSTRA PALIKANI.
see ROSTRA.
 
16 - 22 ROSTRA VETERA.
see ROSTRA.
 
16 - 23 RUPES TARPEIA.
see TARPEIA RUPES.
 
17 S.
17 - 1 SACRA URBS, TEMPLUM.
See URBIS FANUM.
 
17 - 2 SACRA VIA.
The oldest and most famous street in Rome. It and the Nova via were the only streets in the city called viae before the imperial period, when we hear of a VIA FORNICATA, VIA TECTA and VIA NOVA (qq. v.). Sacra via was the correct and well-nigh universal form of the name, and the reverse order, via Sacra, occurs, outside of poetry, with extreme infrequency. Further evidence for this is found in the word sacravienses, and in the protest raised by the grammarians against the common practice of pronouncing the name as if it were a compound.

The Sacra via proper began at the top of the Velia, where it was called summa Sacra via, near the temple of the Lares, the house of the rex sacrorum, the temple of Jupiter Stator and the later arch of Titus, and extended down to the east end of the forum, a point variously designated as near the regia, the temple of Vesta, or the arch of Fabius this section seems to have been called sacer clivus (see CLIVUS SACER), and to go from the upper end to the lower was called sacra via descendere, or deducere. This street, from the top of the Velia to the entrance to the forum, is the Sacravia of all the sources, literary and epigraphical, down to the end of the empire, with two exceptions, Varro. It is evident that Varro-and Festus following his authority- believed that the Sacra via owed its origin to the fact that it was the course of religious processions, and supposed that the street began at the shrine of STRENIA(q.v.), not mentioned elsewhere, but near the site of the Colosseum, ascended the slope of the Velia, and after descending to the regia, crossed the forum to the Capitol. This statement, however, is disproved by what he himself adds about common usage. There is therefore no reason for supposing that Sacra via ever meant more than the street from the Velia to the regia, although the term is now frequently used to include the stretch from Colosseum to forum, and sometimes of that within the forum also. The explanations given by Varro and Festus are unsatisfactory, and probably the street was called sacra because on it stood the most sacred shrines of Rome, those of Vesta and the Lares, as well as the dwellings of the Vestals, the pontifex maximus and the rex sacrificulus, although it may be that the street itself, from its position and early importance, was regarded as something intrinsically sacred.

The course and level of the Sacra via varied somewhat at different times. As it was the principal means of communication between the Palatine and the forum, it probably began on the summit of the Velia, near the porta Mugonia and the temple of Jupiter Stator, and ran in a fairly straight line to the regia and temple of Vesta, but just at what point it approached them is not certain. After the building of the fornix Fabianus in 121 B.C. the street passed through it.

We have but scanty remains of the Sacra via of the period of Sulla. A street (which is perhaps the vicus Vestae) which diverged from it at the fornix has been found under the temple of Julius Caesar and the arch of Augustus, the pavement of which lies at 11.90 metres above sea-level; and a few blocks exist of its pavement below the steps at the north-east corner of the temple of Julius at 12.50 metres above sea-level. At the 'temple of Romulus' it lay at about metres and at the divergence of the clivus Palatinus at about 27 metres. For the remains of structures attributable to this period (and to earlier times) along this portion of its course, mainly shops and wells.

After the rebuilding of the regia in 36 B.C. and the building of the temple of Divus Iulius a few years later, it passed to the north of these structures, and then bent to the left to the temple of Castor. For the early empire the line is definitely established by the discovery of the Augustan pavement, 5 metres wide, for a considerable part of this distance, which shows that the street curved to the north just east of the very top of the Velia, which it left very near the present arch of Titus. It falls from a level of 28.30 metres above sea-level at a point 7 metres east of the arch of Titus to 12.60 metres at the north-east corner of the temple of Julius. Some of this pavement has been found under the steps of the temple of Venus and Roma.

Opposite the middle of the basilica of Constantine this Augustan pavement is crossed by the massive concrete foundations of a series of arcades of the time of Nero. These foundations run in parallel lines, first south-east and then, turning at right angles, south-west. This shows that Nero changed the line of the Sacra via, in connection with the building of the DOMUS AUREA (q.v.), and made it run between this portico and the one opposite it up to the vestibule and then around the north-west corner of that building with a sharp turn. On the north side of the Augustan pavement are the foundations and walls of later private houses and buildings, which were destroyed by the erection of arcades on this side also. The level at the east end of the forum remained as before. At the temple of Romulus it was about 16.70 metres above sea-level, in front of the basilica of Constantine 22.50 to 23.10, and at its junction with the clivus Palatinus about 27.60 metres. When Hadrian built the temple of Venus and Roma, some further alterations in the street in front of it must have been made, and thereafter the Sacra via from the Velia downwards to the regia appears to have been an avenue, about 30 metres wide, flanked on both sides by porticoes and shops, those on the north being finally destroyed by the erection of the basilica of Constantine. It was this avenue that was represented by the pavement, 23 metres wide including the side walks, which was removed in 1899.

After the erection of the arch of Titus, the street passed through it and continued eastward in a straight line to the Meta Sudans, between the temple of Venus and Roma and the temple of Jupiter Stator and the buildings on the slope of the Palatine. The Nova via joined the Sacra via near the arch of Titus, and at about the same point the so-called clivus Palatinus branched off the south and ascended the Palatine at the porta Mugonia.

The Sacra via was also a residential quarter in regal and republican times, and those who dwelt here were called sacravienses. According to tradition, Numa, Ancus Martius and Tarquinius Superbus lived here. The houses of the VALERII (q.v.) and of Cn. Domitius Calvinus were in summa Velia; and on the Sacra via itself were those of P. Scipio Nasica, Tettius Damio, of the Octavii and of the Domitii. Many remains of these houses of the republican period have been found on the south side of the street in front of the atrium Vestae and farther east, especially in the angle formed by the Nova via and clivus Palatinus. Some of the ruins here are as late as the time of Augustus.

Like all the first streets in great cities, the Sacra via became in process of time largely a street of shops. At the beginning of the empire it is probable that these shops stood on both sides of the way, from the entrance to the forum to the Velia, but in consequence of the great changes wrought by the erection of the forum Pacis, the templum Sacrae Urbis and the temple of Faustina, they were gradually restricted for the most part to the south side of the street between the atrium Vestae and the arch of Titus. Many inscriptions have been found relating to the tradesmen of the Sacra via, especially jewellers of all sorts, and those who dealt in flowers, fruit and luxuries.

Going eastward from the exit of the Sacra via from the forum area between the temple of divus Iulius and the porticus Gai et Luci, the street passes on the north the temple of Faustina (141 A.D.), the archaic necropolis, the remains of private houses, the Heroon Romuli, and the basilica of Constantine; on the south the regia, the remains of houses and shops between the street and the atrium Vestae, and the great porticus (see above).
 
17 - 3 SAEPTA IULIA.
The building which Caesar planned to erect in place of the earlier saepta (see OVILE), the voting precinct in the campus Martius. It was to be of marble, surrounded by a lofty porticus one mile in length. Whether actually begun by Caesar or not, it was partly built by Lepidus, and completed and dedicated by Agrippa in 26 B.C. Agrippa decorated the building with stone tablets and paintings, and gave the official designation of saepta Iulia. It seems to have been ordinarily called saepta only; once porticus saeptorum; and once, in the third century, saepta Agrippiana. It also continued to be known as ovile.

In the saepta gladiatorial combats were exhibited by Augustus, Caligula, Claudius; and naumachiae, or sham naval battles, by Augustus and Caligula. Nero used the building for gymnastic exhibitions. In B.C. the senate was convened here, the only recorded occasion, and Tiberius addressed the people from a tribunal erected in it, after his return from the Illyrian campaign. Pliny speaks of the works of art that it contained, and Seneca of the crowds that frequented it.

It was injured by the great fire of 80 A.D., but must have been restored at once, for it was a favourite resort in the time of Domitian for loungers, and a bazaar. Another restoration was carried out by Hadrian, and the building is mentioned in the third century, and on the post-Constantinian bronze collar of a slave. No reference has been found to it in the Middle Ages.

It is certain that Augustus built the new saepta primarily to take the place of the old as a voting precinct, but that the diminishing importance of the comitia made its use for other purposes easy and natural, a process that was completed after Tiberius transferred the elections from the people to the senate. Such changes in use were probably reflected in some changes at least in the inner arrangement of the Augustan building.

The saepta in its final form is represented partly on fragments of the Marble Plan, and some of its ruins have been discovered at seven different points, under the Palazzi Simonetti, Doria, Bonaparte, Venezia, and the churches of San Marco and S. Maria in Via Lata. The building was a rectangular porticus, extending along the west side of the Via Lata (Corso), from the aqua Virgo, the present Via del Caravita, to the Via di S. Marco, a distance of more than 400 metres. It was built of travertine, with eight longitudinal rows of piers, and 60 metres (that is, 200 Roman feet) deep. The first row, along the Via Lata, was ornamented with a balustrade. Four of the inner piers under the Palazzo Doria, belonging to the fourth and fifth rows, were measured by Hilsen. They are 1.70 metres square, 4 metres apart in the north-south direction and 6.20 in the other. Other piers further west show different dimensions. Cf. also RA 93-96. Remains were also found when the Palazzo Simonetti (north of S. Maria in Via Lata) was converted into the Banco di Roma, consisting of Hadrianie brick pilasters (obviously therefore his restoration) about which no information has been published.

Lanciani has maintained that the saepta did not extend quite so far south, and that its southern limit was marked by an ancient street which is said to have been found in 1875 running from the Corso to the main door of the Palazzo Venezia, perhaps the same as that reported to have been found in 1455. The evidence for the antiquity of this street is not conclusive, and is offset by the discovery of the masonry under the Palazzetto Venezia.

Whether this porticus, which constituted the saepta in the third century after the restorations or rebuildings of Domitian and Hadrian, represents in any considerable degree the saepta of Agrippa, is an open question. Some evidence for the affirmative is found in the existing masonry, which is characteristic of the Augustan rather than of the later periods, and the length of the building affords just room for eighty or eighty-two lateral sections of the dimensions illustrated by the piers described above, a fact that suggests a comparison with the number of centuries voting in the comitia centuriata. If this does represent in the main the saepta of Augustus, we must suppose that gladiatorial combats, and still more certainly naval battles, took place in an open area on the west side of the porticus and were witnessed from its roof or upper story, as well as from platforms erected in the arcades. Gradually, however, this open area was covered with new buildings, like the Iseum and porticus Divorum.

According to a view which has been set forth with some plausibility (BC 1893, 136-142), the DIRIBITORIUM (q.v.), or hall where the votes were counted, was not a separate structure, but the upper story of the saepta. This theory accounts for the massive character of the masonry that has been found, and for other difficulties.
 
17 - 4 SALINAE.
warehouses for the salt that was brought up the Tiber in boats and carried inland by the via Salaria-probably the earliest kind of traffic between Rome and the sea coast. They were situated on and adjacent to the site of the porta Trigemina, probably outside this gate after it was built.
 
17 - 5 SALUS, ARA.
an altar mentioned once in connection with the prodigia of B.C., but not certainly in Rome. 
 
17 - 6 SALUS, AEDES.
A temple on that part of the Quirinal hill that was known as the collis Salutaris (see QUIRINALIS COLLIS). This indicates that the cult was localised here at an early date, but this temple is said to have been vowed in 3B.C. by C. Junius Bubulcus when consul, begun in his censorship in 306, and dedicated by him when dictator in 303.  The day of dedication was 5th August. It was struck by lightning in 276 and 206 B.C., and burned in the reign of Claudius, but afterwards restored, for it was standing in the fourth century. In it was a statue of Cato, set up by the senate in his honour.

The temple of Bubulcus was decorated with frescoes which, in spite of the injuries of 276 and 206 B.C., were preserved until the building was burned in the time of Claudius (Plin. loc. cit.). These frescoes were said to have been painted by a member of the gens Fabia, a C. Fabius who signed his name to his work, and won for himself and his family the cognomen Pictor. Later this Fabius was confused with his descendant Q. Fabius Pictor, the annalist. This story has been vigorously attacked, but the evidence against it is not yet convincing.

No traces of the temple have been found, but it was near the temple of Quirinus and the house of Atticus, and probably on or near the CLIVUS SALUTIS (q.v.), that is, near the west end of the present royal palace.
 
17 - 7 SALUTARIS COLLIS.
see QUIRINALIS COLLIS.
 
17 - 8 SAMIARIUM.
a building near the Colosseum in Region II (Not.) where gladiators' weapons were sharpened and polished
 
17 - 9 SATURNIUS MONS.
 
17 - 10 SATURNUS, ARA.
A very ancient altar, which the antiquarians dated from before the Trojan war, and even ascribed to Hercules. The site of the altar is described in exactly the same words as that of the later temple (see below), and as it was standing when Dionysius wrote, it must have been very close to the temple, and have been preserved until the great changes of the early empire in this part of the forum caused its removal. It is not possible to decide on which side of the temple it was (for the literature see AEDES SATURNI).
 
17 - 11 SATURNUS, AEDES.
The temple erected close to the original ara at the foot of the Capitoline and edge of the forum. It was the oldest temple of which the erection was recorded in the pontifical archives, but there was marked disagreement as to the exact date. One tradition ascribed its dedication to Tullus Hostilius; according to another it was begun by the last Tarquin. Elsewhere, however, its actual dedication is assigned to the magistrates of the first years of the republic, either to Titus Larcius in his dictatorship in 50, who also is said to have commenced building the temple in his second consulship in 498 (Dionys. vi. I. ; or to Aulus Sempronius and M. Mamercus, the consuls of 497. Which Furius is referred to is not known, and this form of the tradition is probably valueless. The dedication of the temple may safely be assigned to the beginning of the republic.

In 174 B.C. a porticus was built along the clivus Capitolinus from the temple to the Capitolium. In 42 B.C. the temple was rebuilt by L. Munatius Plancus. It is mentioned incidentally in A.D., and at some time in the fourth century it was injured by fire and restored by vote of the senate, as recorded in the inscription on the architrave. It is represented on three fragments of the Marble Plan, and is mentioned in Reg..

Throughout the republic this temple contained the state treasury, the aerarium populi Romani or Saturni, in charge of the quaestors, and in it was a pair of scales to signify this function. Under the empire the same arrangement continued, but the aerarium Saturni now contained only that part of the public funds that was under the direction of the senate as distinguished from the fiscus of the emperors, and was administered by praefecti generally instead of quaestors. It is probable that only the money itself was kept in the temple, and that the offices of the treasury adjoined it, perhaps at the rear in the AREA SATURNI (q.v.), until the building of the Tabularium in 78 B.C., when some at least of the records were probably transferred thither. Other public documents were affixed to the outer walls of the temple and adjacent columns.

On the gable of the temple were statues of Tritons with horses, and in the cella was a statue of Saturn, filled with oil and bound in wool, which was carried in triumphal processions. The day of dedication was the Saturnalia, 17th December. There are a few blocks of the podium of the original temple still remaining, and a drain below and in front is probably as early, in which case it and some similar drains close by are the earliest examples of the stone arch in Italy. There is no trace of any construction of an intermediate period, and the existing podium belongs to the temple of Plancus. It is constructed of walls of travertine and peperino, with concrete filling, and was covered with marble facing. It is 22.50 metres wide, about 40 long, and its front and east side rise very high above the forum because of the slope of the Capitoline hill. The temple was Ionic, hexastyle prostyle, with two columns on each side, not counting those at the angles. Of the superstructure eight columns of the pronaos remain, six in front and one on each side, together with the entablature, hitherto attributed to the period of the final restoration. It seems more likely that Fiechter is right in attributing the cornice to the Augustan period, on the analogy of several other cornices. The architrave blocks with the palmette frieze belowthem belong to the forum of Trajan,whence theywere removed for the fourth century restoration. The front columns are of grey and those on the sides of red granite, while the entablature is of white marble. The columns are metres in height and 1.43 in diameter at the base; but in some of them the drums that form the shaft have been wrongly placed, so that the shaft does not taper regularly toward the top. The bases also are of three different kinds-Attic, and Corinthian with and without a plinth.

The steps of this temple were of peculiar form, on account of the closeness of the clivus Capitolinus and the sharp angle which it made in front of the temple, the main flight being only about one-third the width of the pronaos. It may be represented in a relief of the time of M. Aurelius (Cons. 25) and is certainly seen in one of those of the ROSTRA AUGUSTI (q.v.). Considerably more of the temple was existing when Poggio first visited Rome in 1402 than was left in 1447, as we learn from his De varietate fortunae.
 
17 - 12 SAXUM.
see REMORIA and BONA DEA SUBSAXANA.
 
17 - 13 SAXUM TARPEIUM.
see TARPEIA RUPES.
 
17 - 14 SCALAE ANULARIAE.
A flight of steps known only from one passage, which states that Augustus lived in a house of Licinius Calvus (q.v.) iuxta Romanum  forum supra scalasanularias, and afterwards in Palatio. These steps, therefore, probably led up the side of the Palatine but not so far that a house above them could be called in Palatio. They were evidently named from adjacent shops of anularii, or ring makers.
 
17 - 15 SCALAE CACI.
An ancient stairway on the south side of the Palatine, leading down to the valley of the circus Maximus. The top of it (supercilium) is named as the end of ROMA QUADRATA ( and as the site of the CASA ROMULI (q.v.). What the ATRIUM CACI (q.v.) has to do with it is uncertain. Probably the steps originally served as a short cut to the bottom of the clivus Victoriae, and the porta Romanula stood at their junction with it, rather than farther north, v. supra 376.

Tradition connected this corner with the story of the robber Cacus, but both he and his sister Caca were in reality ancient Italic fire deities. Of the steps themselves nothing certain is left. At the top the travertine foundations of a gate of the imperial period are in situ, together with a small piece of road pavement; a little lower down they turned at right angles and ran to the south-west corner of the hill; but here they have been built over by a house of the imperial period, and survive only in the form of an internal staircase. 
 
17 - 16 SCALAE ? CANINIAE.
see BUSTA GALLICA.
 
17 - 17 SCALAE CASSII.
A flight of steps in Region XIII (Not.), leading perhaps to the top of the Aventine from the bank of the river, or farther south from the horrea, and possibly to be identified with the scala usque in Aventinum of the eighth century near S. Sabina.
 
17 - 18 SCALAE DEUM PENATIUM.
see PENATES DEI, AEDES.
 
17 - 19 SCALAE GEMONIAE.
A flight of steps leading up the Capitoline past the career, on which the bodies of certain criminals, who had been executed, were thrown and left exposed for a time-a frequent practice during the empire. They are often mentioned, first under Tiberius, and are called scalae Gemoniae. Only two of these passages give any topographical information, but that does not determine the course of these steps with precision. It is probable, however, that it coincided approximately with the present Via di S. Pietro in carcere. It is possible that the GRADUS MONETAE (q.v.), mentioned by Ovid, may have connected in some way with these steps. Gemoniae was undoubtedly connected in the popular mind with gemo, 'I groan' (cf. GRADUS GEMITORII; Tert. loc. cit.) but incorrectly. It is rather derived from the proper name Gemonius, but the reason for its use is unknown.
 
17 - 20 SCALA MEDIANA.
A flight of steps known only from one inscription. Whether it had any connection with the porticus Fabaria (Reg. XIII) and led up the Aventine, or up the Capitoline from the forum Holitorium
 
17 - 21 SCALAE TARQUITIAE.
Mentioned only once and quite unknown, although the suggestion that they were steps up to the Capitol is plausible enough.
 
17 - 22 SCHOLA CALCARIENSIUM.
Probably the headquarters of the corporation of lime burners, mentioned only in two inscriptions that were found near the thermae of Diocletian. It was probably situated, as well as their synagogue, near the VICUS PULVERARIUS.
 
17 - 23 SCHOLA CARRUCARIORUM.
see AREA CARRUCES.
 
17 - 24 SCHOLA FABRUM SOLIARIUM BAXIARIUM.
An office or headquarters of the guild of shoemakers under the theatre of Pompeius
 
17 - 25 SCHOLA FORI TRAIANI.
Probably a room or rooms attached to the libraries of the FORUM TRAIANI (q.v.), where editors and authors worked, if we may judge from the only occurrence of the name-in the subscription after declamatio.
 
17 - 26 SCHOLA KALATORUM PONTIFICUM.
The name given to the recently discovered office or headquarters of the kalatores, or freedmen attached to the pontifices and flamines as assistants, which was in the forum near the regia. In 1899 a fragment of a marble epistyle was found built into the foundations of a mediaeval wall at the south-west corner of the regia, with part of an inscription. The other part of this epistyle had been found in 1546, and the complete inscription reads: in honoremdomus Augustae kalatores pontificum et flaminum. This epistyle is 3.50 metres long, and probably spanned the entrance of the schola, but the building cannot be identified with any existing remains. It may possibly have been restored in the time of Septimius Severus.
 
17 - 27 SCHOLA PORTICUS OCTAVIAE.
see PORTICUS OCTAVIAE.
 
17 - 28 SCHOLA QUAESTORUM ET CAPLATORUM.
Mentioned only in Not. in Region III, between the lacus Pastorum and the thermae Titianae. The interpretation of this name is uncertain. Caplatores (capulatores) were workmen engaged in the pressing of olive oil, and there is epigraphical evidence for the existence of collegia of caplatores in several Latin and Campanian towns. In the first of these inscriptions a quaestor collegi caplatorum is mentioned, and this may cast some light on the title of the Notitia. The trivium or contrada cambiatoris, a mediaeval district near the Colosseum and the basilica of Constantine, may preserve the latter name.
 
17 - 29 SCHOLA QUINDECIMVIRUM SACRIS FACIUNDIS.
the name given by modern topographers (LF 1 to a building of which some remains were found in 1886 a little north-west of the Tarentum, when the Corso Vittorio Emanuele was built. This building may have been an office of the xvviri in charge of the ludi saeculares.
 
17 - 30 SCHOLA SODALIUM SERRENSIUM.
probably the headquarters of the sodales Serrenses, mentioned in one inscription of the third century which was found a little way outside the porta Nomentana (CICINENSES, PARIANENSES).
 
17 - 31 SCHOLA XANTHI.
An office of the scribae, praecones and librarii of the curule aediles which was erected on the site of an earlier one by Bebryx Aug. lib. Drusianus and A. Fabius Xanthus (hence the modern name Schola Xanthi) during the principate of Tiberius, and restored by a certain C. Avilius Licinius Trosius in the early part of the third century. This is known from the double inscription, which is repeated on the inside and outside of the epistyle of a small but beautiful building that was excavated in 1539 between the arches of Tiberius and Septimius Severus, and shortly afterwards destroyed. During the excavations of 1900-1902 there were found on the site of this earlier discovery, in front of the row of chambers that support the clivus Capitolinus, the remains of a room of trapezoidal shape, with a pavement of white marble. A marble seat encircled three sides of the chamber and in the middle of the north wall is a door from which a flight of steps led up to the level of the clivus Capitolinus. There were also marks of posts or columns on the pavement. The concrete of this building dates from 14-A.D., and corresponds with the indication of the inscription, while the ruins agree with the accounts of the first discovery. It is therefore generally assumed that this is the schola or office of the aediles' clerks.
 
17 - 32 SECRETARIUM CIRCI.
A building, or office, mentioned only once, and apparently connected with the office of the praefectus urbi.
 
17 - 33 SECRETARIUM SENATUS.
see CURIA.
 
17 - 34 SECRETARIUM TELLURENSE.
see PRAEFECTURA URBANA.
 
17 - 35 SECUNDENSES.
Those who dwelt in a certain locality (cf. PARIANENSES, CICINENSES), probably on the Esquiline in Region III near the Sicinium (S. Maria Maggiore). The name occurs in a fragmentary inscription containing an edict of Tarracius Bassus, prefect of the city shortly after 368 A.D.
 
17 - 36 SEMELE LUCUS.
see STIMULAE LUCUS.
 
17 - 37 SEMO SANCUS.
A statue of Semo Sancus Dius Fidius on the island in the Tiber, where an inscription of the second century was found in 1574. The marble base on which this inscription is placed supported a statue which, because of the similarity of names, the early Christians mistook for one of Simon Magus. There is no evidence for the existence of any shrine or altar here, and the cult of Semo Sancus may well have been connected with that of IUPITER IURARIUS(q.v.), and this statue may have stood at or near his temple.
 
17 - 38 SEMO SANCUS, AEDES.
A temple on the Quirinal of this deity under his full name, Semo Sancus Dius Fidius, or its variants, Semo Sancus Fidius, Deus or Dius Fidius. This Sabine cult is said to have been introduced into Rome by Titus Tatius, but the construction of the temple is generally ascribed to the last Tarquin, although it was dedicated by Sp. Postumius many years later, 5th June, 466 B.C.. It contained a bronze statue of Tanaquil, her distaff and spindle, and a wooden shield covered with ox-hide, which was a memorial of the league between Rome and Gabii, and, after the destruction of Privernum in 329 B.C., bronze wheels made of the proceeds of the confiscated property of Vitruvius.

Besides aedes, the temple was called templum (Pliny), fanum (Tert.) and sacellum (Livy). Although small aedes were sometimes called sacella, the use of this term by Livy may perhaps be explained on the hypothesis that the shrine of this deity was open to the sky. It stood on the Collis Mucialis, near and probably a little north of the porta Sanqualis, which was named from the temple, on the ridge of the hill. This site lies in the angle between the modern Vie Nazionale and Quirinale, where, in the gardens of S. Silvestro dcgli Arcioni, was found in the sixteenth century a travertine base dedicated to Semo Sancus,  and near by in more recent times, some lead pipes inscribed with the name of the same collegium  that dedicated the base. Three fragments of concrete foundations have also been found that may belong to this temple
 
17 - 39 SENACULUM.
A place where the senators assembled before entering the curia on formal summons, according to the testimony of writers of the Augustan age. It was probably only an open area in the first place and afterwards a hall. The site of the senaculum referred to in the passages cited is further determined by later writers as close to the Volcanal, at the edge of the Comitium and in front of the basilica Opimia and area Concordiae. The original building must have been removed when the temple of Concord was enlarged by Opimius in 121 B.C. or by Tiberius in 7 B.C..

In the passage from Festus just quoted, it is stated, on the authority of a certain Nicostratus of the second century, that there were two other senacula in Rome where the senate was wont to assemble, one ad portam Capenam, the other citra aedem Bellonae. Of these senacula there is no further mention, but the senate met during the year after the battle of Cannae ad portam Capenam (Liv. xxiii. 32), and many such meetings took place in the temple of Bellona whenever foreign ambassadors, generals desiring a triumph, or any person who could not lawfully be admitted within the pomerium, were to appear before the senate (see BELLONA, AEDES). It is not certain whether this statement of Nicostratus is based on a confusion of senaculum and the regular hall of assembly, or on the fact that such buildings had been erected at these points.

A fourth senaculum seems to be mentioned in Livy. If the text is not corrupt here-as it is in the lines immediately preceding-there must have been a senaculum on the Capitoline bearing the same relation to the curia Calabra and the temple of Jupiter that the senaculum below did to the curia Hostilia. In view of Nicostratus' statement, and the apparent needlessness of another senaculum immediately above the other, the existence of one on the Capitol is very doubtful.
 
17 - 40 SENACULUM MULIERUM.
A hall of assembly for women, which Elagabalus built on the Quirinal in the place where the women had previously been accustomed to meet to discuss matters of common interest. This was probably destroyed afterwards, for Aurelian is said to have wished to restore it or build another.

In 19two female statues were found in the ruins of a building of the imperial period under the Palazzo del Marchese Bourbon del Monte in the Via Venti Settembre, 38.80 metres from the angle of the Via Salaria, which, Pasqui thinks, belong to this senaculum. v. Domaszewski regards the senaculum mulierum as an invention based on the conventus matronalis.
 
17 - 41 SEPTIMIANUM.
Probably a name which came to be given to the district lying along the right bank of the Tiber, from the Aurelian wall to the Vaticanum, on account of the building activity of Septimius Severus in part of this quarter (cf. PORTA SEPTIMIANA). This name does not occur in any ancient sources (unless we accept the reading Septimianae in Hist. Aug. Sev. 19; cf. THERMAE SEPTIMIANAE).
 
17 - 42 SEPTEM CAESARES.
see CAESARES, SEPTEM.
 
17 - 43 SEPTEM DOMUS.
see DOMUS PARTHORUM SEPTEM.
 
17 - 44 SEPTEM TABERNAE.
see TABERNAE CIRCA FORUM.
 
17 - 45 SEPTIMONTIUM.
According to Varro the name of the city before it was called Rome.

Septimontium was also the name of a festival, celebrated on 11th December, and consisting in part of a lustral procession round the Palatine and Esquiline, which is mentioned in the calendars and several times in literature, especially in the following passages: Latin. One of these eight names must obviously be omitted, and the choice has often fallen on SUBURA (q.v.), which is in no sense a 'mons'; but cf. REGIONES QUATTUOR, SUC(C)USA.

It is quite evident that some Roman antiquarians believed that the festival of the was based on the inclusion within the limits of the city of seven hills or parts of hills, but that they differed as to which hills these were. The question therefore is whether an early stage in the city's growth, preceding that commonly known as the City of the Four Regions, was actually called Septimontium or whether this is simply an invention of later antiquarians to explain the name of the festival. While it is altogether probable, from other considerations, that the districts named by Labeo, for instance, did at some time before the Servian period make up the territory included within the city limits, and very certain that the Septimontium was an ancient festival, it is not probable that this was ever an actual name of Rome. Hilsen points out that three of the seven montes bear names (Cispius, Caelius, Oppius) which are identical with those of well-known plebeian gentes; while tradition records eponymous heroes of each hill (Opiter Oppius, Laevius Cispius, Caelius Vibenna); further, the gentilicia of the kings of Rome (except Romulus and the Etruscan Tarquins) are all plebeian. On the other hand, the names of the sixteen tribus rusticae are all patrician. It therefore seems as if the families that expelled the Tarquins formed an oligarchy, the patricians, while the other older families, who had been their partisans, lost many of their privileges and became plebeian. The whole subject of the Septimontium is complicated and quite obscure.
 
17 - 46 SEPTIZONIUM.
Known only from the statement in Suetonius that Titus was born propeSeptizonium aedibus sordidis. It was probably somewhat similar to the Septizonium of Severus, although very much smaller, and it has been located generally on the Esquiline but without sufficient reason.
 
17 - 47 SEPTIZONIUM.
A building erected by Septimius Severus at the extreme south- east corner of the Palatine hill. The inscription records the dedication in 203 A.D.; and the building is undoubtedly referred to by Amm. Marc. in 355 when the mention of Marcus instead of Severus is due to the fact that the name Marcus appears first in the dedicatory inscription. According to the Vita, therefore, Severus intended this building to serve as a monumental faSade at this corner of the hill, visible to all who approached by the via Appia, and also as an entrance to the imperial precinct. The latter purpose could not be carried out because the prefect of the city set up the statue of the emperor in the central niche. Ammianus (loc. cit.) implies that the building was in fact a nymphaeum of imposing size and appearance; and a septizonium at Lambaesis had an 'aqueductus et nymphaei opus' attached to it.

The whole of the latter part of the passage in Hist. Aug. Sev. to be an interpolation; and this is why Hulsen in his latest restoration has omitted the statue of Severus which had previously been inserted in the central niche. The very existence of a main approach to the Palatine on this side at this period seems highly doubtful.

Dombart, however, retains it in his restoration, and inclines to refer to it the second colossus named in Not. Brev. He differs from Hulsen mainly (a) in placing the columns in the niches closer to their back walls, (b) in giving half domes to the niches.  The design of the front (an ornamental facade with three large niches, and three orders of columns) owed much to the type of permanent stage decoration (scaenae frons) which is seen in the back walls of the stages of various provincial theatres of the Roman period; and it is not without parallels, of which the nymphaea (expressly so called in inscriptions) of Miletus and Side are the most striking. There appears indeed to be no doubt that it was actually decorated with fountains; and it also seems clear that the interior, which would have served no useful purpose, was not originally accessible except by means of ladders. There is no evidence for an external staircase at the back. Dombart has misquoted Demontosius, Gallus Romae Hospes, 25.

A very difficult problem is presented by the name and its meaning. The form septizodium is first found in the Pseudo-Dositheus (about 207 A.D.) and in an inscription, CIL viii. (Suppl.) 14372 (about 2A.D.), but is probably to be treated as incorrect and may therefore be disregarded (Schtirer, Zeitschr. f. d. neutestamentliche Wissenschaft vi.. Unsuccessful attempts have been made to interpret septizonium in a literal sense, and to see in it a building which is capable of division, whether horizontally or vertically, into seven sections or belts. There is no doubt, however, that the building only had three stories. The reference to the seven planets may, however, be accepted even so, if the meaning of ζώνη and ἑπτάζωνος be kept in mind. Dombart is inclined to suppose that the building was actually decorated with emblems representing the seven planetary divinities of the seven days of the week, and who also emphasises the importance of the number seven in connection with the Ziggurats of Babylonia.

The mediaeval corruptions of the name are many- septem viae, septem solia, while the name scuola di Vergilio came from the fact that mediaeval scholars found in the septodium the trivium et quadrivium liberalium artium. The church of S. Lucia de Septem solio is first mentioned in Eins.; another church, S. Leone de Septem Soliis stood opposite to it, on the slopes of the Caelian (HCh 297-298). The mediaeval history of the building, which served as a fortress, is interesting.

The east angle of the building itself was preserved until the pontificate of Sixtus V who ordered its destruction, and the use of its materials for his own buildings. We learn from the records of its demolition that many columns, etc., of rare marbles had been employed in its construction, which probably came from various different sources. The columns of the three orders were all composite. We are therefore thrown back on the Forma Urbis and the numerous Renaissance representations of the building for information about it; and hence there has been much discussion about its details, though its general form may be taken as certain.

An interesting confirmation of Hulsen's reconstruction at the posterior angles is given by a picture by Macrino d'Alba.
 
17 - 48 SEPULCRETUM.
The modern name given to the archaic necropolis found in April, 1902, near the temple of Antoninus and Faustina. It consisted of both cremation and inhumation graves; and the pottery is very similar to that which is found in archaic cemeteries in the Alban hills.

MacIver comes to the conclusion that all the cremation burials in the forum belong to a people of Villanovan stock, and in date range from the twelfth or eleventh to the ninth century B.C.; that the inhumation burials are to be divided from them racially, and not chronologically, assigning them to the Picenes, i.e. the descendants of the local neolithic inhabitants, and, while beginning at the same period, appear to run down late in the seventh century B.C., the last tomb being G in Boni's list, which contained an imported Greek lekythos with figures of running dogs. As to the Esquiline cemeteries, which range from the ninth to the sixth centuries B.C., and have yielded practically nothing but inhumation graves, he treats it as still an open question whether the population is to be identified as Picene or as Etruscan; while in regard to the Villanovans, he does not accept the theory of Pigorini, Colini and others, who hold the Villanovans to be direct descendants of the inhabitants of the ' terremare; and prefers to derive both from the Central European and Danubian stocks as distinct and parallel nations. Von Duhn, on the other hand, regards the cremation tombs of the forum as a good deal earlier than the inhumation tombs, while later than and not contemporary with the earliest tombs of the Alban hills; and Hulsen dates them from the ninth or eighth to the sixth century B.C.
 
17 - 49 SEPULCRUM ACCAE LARENTIAE.
The tomb of Acca Larentia in the Velabrum at the beginning of the Nova via, near the porta Romanula, beside which was an altar where sacrifices were offered by the pontifices on 23rd December.
 
17 - 50 SEP. P. AELII GUTTAE CALPURNIANI.
The tomb of a celebrated charioteer of this name of the time of Hadrian or the Antonines, on the via Flaminia just outside the porta Flaminia. The inscription was seen and copied by the compiler of the Einsiedeln Itinerary. When the square towers on the outside of the PORTA FLAMINIA were destroyed in 1876-1877, several large marble fragments of bas-relief with scenes from chariot races were found, which probably belonged to this tomb.
 
17 - 51 SEP. AGRIPPAE.
The tomb which Agrippa built for himself in the campus Martius. This is perhaps indicated by the remaining letters on fragments 72, 103 of the Marble Plan, and if so, the monument stood between the villa Publica and the thermae Agrippac, in the modern Via del Gesf.
 
17 - 52 SEP. ANTINOI.
see OBELISCUS ANTINOI.
 
17 - 53 SEP. ANTONINORUM.
see MAUSOLEUM HADRIANI.
 
17 - 54 SEP. ARRUNTIORUM.
The tomb of the family, freedmen and slaves, of L. Arruntius, consul in 6 A.D., consisting of three columbaria which were found in the eighteenth century on the south side of the present Viale della Principessa Margherita, a little more than 100 metres from the Porta Maggiore 
 
17 - 55 SEP. BIBULI.
The tomb of C. Publicius Bibulus, a plebeian aedile, erected in the last century of the republic by decree of the senate at the base of the Capitoline hill, on the east side of the via Flaminia, about 100 metres north of the probable site of the porta Fontinalis. It was a rectangular structure of travertine, and tufa where the stone was not visible, consisting of a stereobate and upper portion. The faSade (the south-west side), together with the beginning of the south-east side, is still preserved. Its stereobate is 4.76 metres high and 6.50 wide,  and above this are four Tuscan pilasters with a fragment of the entablature. The central space between the pilasters was probably a niche for a statue; the side spaces were closed and had projecting tablets for inscriptions. The frieze was decorated with garlands, rosettes and ox-skulls. The inscription was cut on the two upper courses of the stereobate and repeated on at least two sides.
 
17 - 56 SEP. CAESARIS.
see TUMULUS IULIAE.
 
17 - 57 SEP. C. ET L. CAESARIS.
A μνημεῖον or tomb of Gaius and Lucius Caesar, in which the body of Julia Domna was placed in 2A.D. before being deposited in the mausoleum of Hadrian. This passage seems to prove that these two Caesars had a separate tomb and that their ashes were not placed in the mausoleum of Augustus. On the other hand, it is generally believed that a fragmentary inscription containing a dedication to Lucius Caesar, although found in the wall of a private house near the Piazza Capranica, belonged to a statue of Lucius in the mausoleum of Augustus. Whatever be the explanation of the statue, it seems unreasonable to doubt the statement of Dio.
 
17 - 58 SEP. CALPURNIORUM.
The tomb of the Calpurnii Pisones of the early empire, discovered in 1885 in the Villa Bonaparte on the east side of the Via Salaria, about 100 metres south of the Porta Salaria.
 
17 - 59 SEP. C. CESTII.
The tomb of a C. Cestius, possibly the praetor who is mentioned once by Cicero. In any case he died before Agrippa, B.C., and the monument dates from that period. It is a pyramid, standing in the angle between the Via Ostiensis and the street which skirted the south-west side of the Aventine, directly in the line of the later Aurelian wall close to the Porta Ostiensis. It is of brick-faced concrete covered with slabs of white marble, is 27 metres high and about 22 square, and stands on a foundation of travertine. In the interior is the burial chamber, 5.95 metres long, 4.wide and 4.80 high. On the east and west sides, about halfway up, is the inscription recording the names and titles of Cestius, and below, on the east side only, another which relates the circumstances of the erection of the monument. In front of the west side two bases of statues were found in 1660, each with an inscription recording its erection by the heirs of Cestius. In the Middle Ages this monument was called sepulcrum Remi, and meta or sepulcrum Romuli.
 
17 - 60 SEP. CINCIORUM.
According to Varro the tomb of the familia Cincia at the porta Romana infimo clivo Victoriae (cf. SEP. ACCAE LARENTIAE). Because of this tomb the locality was called statua Cincia, which indicates that the monument was ornamented with the statue of some one of the family.
 
17 - 61 SEP. CLAUDIORUM.
A tomb at the base of the Capitoline hill on the west side of the via Flaminia, a little north of the tomb of Bibulus. There is no real reason for identifying it with the sepultura gentis Claudiae sub Capitolio.
 
17 - 62 SEP. C. CONSIDII GALLI.
The tomb of C. Considius Gallus, praetor peregrinus some time in the early empire, found in 1883 just north of the line of the via Tiburtina vetus, and close to the intersection of the modern Via Mamiani and Via Principe Amedeo. It was rectangular, 5.30 metres by 4.10, with a facade of marble and side wall of travertine. The inscription was on the frieze.
 
17 - 63 SEP. CORNELIAE.
The tomb of a certain Cornelia, daughter of one L. Scipio and wife of one Matienus, known only from an inscription found in 1871 under the north tower of the porta Salaria 
 
17 - 64 SEP. DOMITIORUM.
The tomb of the family of the Domitii on the Pincian, where the ashes of Nero were placed, in a sarcophagus of porphyry with an altar of Luna marble standing above it, all enclosed by a balustrade of Thasian marble (loc. cit.). This tomb stood on the north-west slope of the hill, probably in horti belonging to the Domitii, but in the Middle Ages it was thought to be at the foot of the hill. To exorcise the evil spirit of Nero, Paschal II built here a small chapel which became in the thirteenth century the church of S. Maria del Popolo.
 
17 - 65 SEP. EURYSACIS.
The tomb of M. Vergilius Eurysaces, a baker, built apparently about the end of the republic, in the angle formed by the bifurcation of the via Praenestina and the via Labicana, just outside the arches of the aqua Claudia, which afterwards became the porta Praenestina of the Aurelian wall. It is trapezoidal, measuring 8.75, 6.85, 5.80 and 4.05 metres on its sides, of concrete with travertine facing. This facing takes the form of horizontal and vertical cylinders in rows, which possibly are designed to represent measures for grain or vessels for mixing dough. Above these cylinders is a cornice, and a frieze covered with reliefs representing the various operations of breadmaking. At the corners are pilasters, and the inscription is repeated on all sides of the monument. The meaning of the last word is uncertain; it is certainly a verb, probably in the sense apparet magistratibus (CIL i². cit.). The inscription of Atistia, no doubt his wife, was also found. When Honorius restored the wall of Aurelian he erected two towers outside the PORTA PRAENESTINA (q.v.), one of which stood over this tomb, and concealed it from view. It must, however, have been partially accessible from the interior, for the inscriptions were partly read in the sixteenth century. The towers were removed in 1838 and the tomb exposed to view, but the east side is almost wholly demolished.
 
17 - 66 SEP. FAUSTULI.
see SEP. ROMULI.
 
17 - 67 SEP. GALBAE.
The tomb of Ser. Sulpicius Galba, consul in 144 or, more probably, 108 B.C., in the district belonging to the family between the south-west side of the Aventine and the Tiber, where the HORREA GALBAE (q.v.) were afterwards built. The tomb, a simple rectangular structure of tufa with a cornice of peperino, was found in 1885 in the Via Giovanni Branca, just north of the later buildings of the horrea and perhaps enclosed within them, on the south side of an ancient road. It is now in the Museo Municipale (Antiquario) on the Caelian.
 
17 - 68 SEP. GAII ET LUCII.
see SEP. C. ET L. CAESARIS.
 
17 - 69 SEP. GALLONIORUM.
A tomb on the via Flaminia, of which a fragmentary inscription was found when the bastions outside the porta Flaminia were destroyed in 1876-1877. This inscription appears to contain the names of two Gallonii-C. Gallonius Q. Marcius Turbo and C. Gallonius Turbo- which indicates a relationship with Q. Marcius Turbo, who was praefectus praetorio under Hadrian. It is possible that the core of a large circular tomb about 100 metres north of the porta Flaminia, which had been marked on Bufalini's plan, belonged to this tomb.
 
17 - 70 SEP. GETAE.
see SEP. SEVERI.
 
17 - 71 SEP. Q. HATERII.
The tomb of a Q. Haterius, perhaps the orator who died in 26 A.D., on the via Nomentana. It was covered by one of the towers which Honorius built outside the porta Nomentana, and the excavations of 1827 brought to light fragments that showed it to have been a rectangular monument, surmounted with a sort of altar with volutes (cf. HATERIUS LATRONIANUS, DOMUS.
 
17 - 72 SEP. HIRTII.
The tomb of A. Hirtius, consul in 43 B.C. in the campus Martius. Its exact location is unknown (cf. SEP. PANSAE).
 
17 - 73 SEP. HORATIAE.
The tomb of Horatia, whom her brother Horatius slew just outside the porta Capena, known only from Livy's statement.
 
17 - 74 SEP. HORATII.
The tomb of the poet Horace, which, with that of Maecenas, is known only from the statement of Suetonius.
 
17 - 75 SEP. IULIORUM.
see TUMULUS IULIAE.
 
17 - 76 SEP. LUCILII PAETI.
The tomb of a certain Lucilius Paetus, tribunus militum under Augustus, found in 1885 about 300 metres beyond the Porta Salaria. It was a round mausoleum, 34 metres in diameter, on which stood, probably, a conical mound of earth about metres high.
 
17 - 77 SEP. MARIAE.
The tomb of Maria, daughter of Stilicho and wife of Honorius, and probably also of Honorius himself, of Theodosius II and Valentinian III, built on the east end of the spina of the CIRCUS GAI ET NERONIS (q.v.), together with another circular mausoleum  of similar size. This was later known as S. Maria della Febbre, and was only demolished by Pius VI. The tomb of Maria contained eight niches on the inside, one of which served as an entrance. In the eighth century the body of S. Petronilla was transferred hither, and the tomb became known as the chapel of the Frankish kings. It was destroyed about 1520 during the building of the present church of S. Peter's, but the sarcophagus containing the remains of Maria with much treasure in gold and silver was found in 1544.
 
17 - 78 SEP. L. NONII ASPRENATIS.
The tomb of L. Nonius Asprenas, either the consul of 6 A.D., or, more probably, his son who was consul in 29 A.D.. A few fragments probably of the marble frieze, with an inscription, were found when the east bastion on the outer side of the PORTA FLAMINIA (q.v.) was demolished in 1876-1877.
 
17 - 79 SEP. NUMAE.
The tomb of Numa, placed by tradition on the right bank of the Tiber. The body of Numa was said to have been buried in one stone sarcophagus and his sacred books in another. The alleged discovery of the latter in 181 B.C. gave rise to great scandal. There is no indication of the exact location of the tomb or of the ager Petilii or of the ara Fontis.
 
17 - 80 SEP. OCTAVIAE.
The tomb of a certain Octavia, daughter of M. Appius, discovered in 16at the corner of the Via Sistina and the Via di Porta Pinciana, on the line of the ancient street that issued from the Porta Quirinalis and ran northward. The tomb was of marble, with the inscription on the frieze.
 
17 - 81 SEP. ORESTIS.
The tomb of Orestes, who, according to the Roman form of the tradition, was said to have died in Aricia and to have been buried in front of the temple of Saturn in Rome.
 
17 - 82 SEP. PALLANTIS.
The tomb of Pallas, the celebrated freedman of Claudius, erected by the senate on the via Tiburtina intra primum lapidem.
 
17 - 83 SEP. PANSAE.
The tomb of C. Pansa, consul in 43 B.C., in the campus Martius. In 1899 a travertine block with a dedicatory inscription to Pansa was found at the corner of the Corso Vittorio Emanuele and the Vicolo Savelli, and another sepulchral inscription of a Pansa, probably the grandson of the consul of 43, is reported to have been found about 400 metres from this point. The tomb, therefore, was probably somewhere north of the theatre of Pompeius.
 
17 - 84 SEP. PASSIENORUM.
The tomb of the Passieni, found in 1705 in the Vigna Moroni, on the west side of the via Appia, not far north of the porta Appia. It contained many fragmentary inscriptions from the first two centuries. For the description and reproduction of this tomb.
 
17 - 85 SEP. POMPONII HYLAE.
A columbarium on the via Latina, just outside the porta Latina. In it is a panel in coloured mosaic, with the sepulchral inscription of Pomponius Hylas and his wife, but it is by no means certain that they owned or built the columbarium, which contains the ashes of persons entirely unconnected with Hylas or each other. The tomb was built in the time of Tiberius, and the latest inscription belongs to a freedman of Antoninus Pius. The columbarium is of brick-faced concrete and in a good state of preservation. 
 
17 - 86 SEP. ROMULI (.
The legendary sepulchre of Romulus in the comitium. The schol. on Hor., state variously that Romulus was buried in or pro rostris or post rostra; and in the former version two lions are mentioned as having stood by the tomb. Dion.  says that, according to one story, the lion which lay by the rostra stood over the body of Faustulus; while in iii. I he says that the father of Tullus Hostilius was buried here, with a stele to celebrate his virtues.

The discovery in 1899 opposite the front of the curia Iulia, and orientated with it, of a pavement of black marble slabs-they are marmor Taenarium-about 4 metres long by 3 wide, lying on the same level as the Caesarian pavement of the comitium, was naturally brought into connection with the niger lapis; and investigations were undertaken beneath it. A group of very ancient monuments was found, the chronological sequence of which is as follows: (I) an archaic inscribed four-sided cippus, the upper part of which has been broken off. It stands in a shallow hollow, cut for it in the surface of a pavement, but has been slightly displaced. It has given rise to much discussion; and the state of our knowledge with regard to the content of the text is summarised by Lommatzsch in CIL i². I. 'It seems,' he says, 'that it is a law or laws as to certain rites to be performed by the king or perhaps by those in attendance on the king in the comitium. To attempt to define it further would be useless, as we do not even know how much of the cippus is lost.' As to the date, he fixes it about 500 B.C., as being slightly later than the fibula of Praeneste. The freshness of the surface may be explained by the fact that it was covered with stucco.

( a conical column of tufa dating from the fifth century.

( the so-called sacellum-consisting of (a) a rectangular foundation of one course of tufa blocks, on which rest two bases, each 2.66 metres long and I.31 broad; these support pedestals of tufa with curved profiles, probably to be reconstructed similarly to the altar of VERMINUS (q.v.). These pedestals might very well have supported the statues of recumbent lions. Between them is a block of stone, on which the original niger lapis may have stood. (b) another small platform of tufa blocks directly behind, with no trace of any superstructure. For the orientation of the sacellum, see ROSTRA. It dates probably from the latter half of the fourth century B.C.

Between this group of monuments and the black marble pavement there lay (a) a stratum of river sand and gravel 0.55 metre thick, (b) a layer, 0.40 metre thick, of earth and ashes, in which various objects of pottery, terra cotta and bronze were found (including even fragments of the black marble pavement), dating, not (as was at first announced), from the sixth century B.C., but from the sixth to the first century B.C., and mixed together in the utmost confusion. A full report upon them has not yet been published; but if there really was no stratification, they cannot have formed a stips votiva.

The original idea, that the destruction of these monuments dates from the fire of the Gauls, is therefore untenable; and it is doubtful whether the black marble pavement was laid by Sulla, by Caesar  (in which case it is doubtful whether niger lapis would be a correct term for it, and the absence of any mention in the literature of the empire of so striking a monument is as strange as the fact that it does not correspond at all, in extent or orientation, with the monuments beneath), or by Maxentius, who is known to have revived the cult of Romulus, and indeed set up close by a base with the inscription ' Marti invicto patri et aeternae urbis suae conditoribus.' The rough edging of white marble blocks (and, perhaps, the diminution of the size of the black marble pavement) would date from an even later period.
 
17 - 87 SEP. ROMULI (.
see META ROMULI.
 
17 - 88 SEP. RUSTICELIORUM.
the tomb of the Rusticelii, a monument of tufa and peperino, 30 feet square, dating from the end of the republic. It was completely covered by the TESTACEUS (q.v.) MONS, but was found in 1687 during some excavations in the side of the hill
 
17 - 89 SEP. SCIPIONIS.
the name sometimes applied at the beginning of the Renaissance to the pyramidal monument between the mausoleum of Hadrian and the Vatican, which was more frequently called META ROMULI (q.v.). The ascription to Scipio was due to a scholion. There is, of course, no ground for this identification.
 
17 - 90 SEP. SCIPIONUM.
The family tomb of the Cornelii Scipiones near the via Appia, about 400 metres south-east of the point where the via Latina branched off to the east, and at the intersection of a cross road that connected the two great viae. The importance of the family made this one of the most notable monuments of the kind in Rome. Ennius was buried in this tomb, and his marble statue erected by Africanus. The statues of Publius and Lucius Scipio are also said to have been placed in the tomb.

As the Scipios regularly followed the practice of inhumation and not cremation, the tomb was filled with sarcophagi, arranged for the most part in loculi cut in the tufa rock. The tomb was opened early in the seventeenth century, and one sarcophagus, that of L. Scipio, consul in 259 B.C., was broken and its inscribed lid removed, but the final excavation of the monument was carried out in 1780. Many of the sarcophagi were then broken and their contents scattered, though Hilsen, to whom the description of the tomb in CIL cit. is due, considers that much of the damage had already been done in the fourth century; but one, that of L. Scipio Barbatus, consul in 298 B.C., and apparently the first to be buried there, was preserved and is now in the Vatican, together with portions of several others and their original inscriptions. These inscriptions record the burial of eight members of the family, from Barbatus (vid. sup.) to Paulla Cornelia, wife of a certain Hispallus of unknown date but probably later than 150 B.C.. Some of them are written in the Saturnian metre and are extremely valuable for the history of Latin literature and phonology, but they are probably later than the date usually assigned to them. That of Barbatus, for instance, is probably not earlier than the second Punic war. Of the sarcophagi, that of Barbatus alone was decorated with a Doric entablature with Ionic volutes. The others were perfectly plain.

The tomb has quite recently been completely cleared, and restored as far as possible to its original condition, facsimiles of the sarcophagus of Barbatus and of the inscriptions having been put in their proper places. Its facade lay on the cross-road already mentioned, and consisted of the natural rock, which had been hewn vertically and coated with plaster for a length of some 25 m. The paintings with which this facade was decorated are fragmentary. In it are two openings-the main entrance, the ancient form of which has completely disappeared, and what has generally been believed to be an arched doorway, but is far more likely to be a window. Within the rock are passages, originally quite regular, but much altered in the third and fourth centuries A.D. (when a house was built over the tomb, and the rock consequently needed reinforcement) as well as in modern days: an idea of their original form may be gained from the restoration in Ephemeris Dacico-Romana, which contains a careful account of the tomb before the recent excavations, with illustrations, and a plan which supersedes all previous ones. To the south-west of the tomb are rooms belonging to the house already mentioned.
 
17 - 91 SEP. SEMPRONIORUM.
The tomb of the Sempronii, of the end of the republic, situated just outside the porta Sanqualis, at the upper end of the present Via Dataria. It was excavated in 1863, but the inscription had been known in the seventeenth century. The travertine facade on the clivus leading up to the gate had a plain arched entrance into the sepulchral chamber, which was cut in the tufa rock. The threshold was 2 metres above the pavement of the road, and over the doorway was a decorated frieze and cornice.
 
17 - 92 SEP. SEVERI.
An alleged tomb of Septimius Severus, known to us only from one passage. Severus, Caracalla and Geta were, however, all buried in the MAUSOLEUM OF HADRIAN (q.v.), and the passage is interpolated.
 
17 - 93 SEP. STATII CAECILII.
The tomb of the poet Statius Caecilius, near the Janiculum, of which nothing further is known.
 
17 - 94 SEP. STATILIORUM.
The columbarium of the slaves and freedmen of the Statilii, and in particular of M. Statilius Taurus, consul in 44 A.D. and owner of the HORTI TAURIANI (q.v.). It was on the north side of the via Praenestina, about 100 metres inside the porta Praenestina (Maggiore), on the south-west side of the modern Viale Principessa Margherita. Three chambers of this tomb were excavated in 1875-1877, and many inscriptions discovered which dated from Augustus to Claudius.
 
17 - 95 SEP. SULLAE.
The tomb of the dictator L. Cornelius Sulla, erected in the campus Martius, by order of the senate, and restored by Caracalla.
 
17 - 96 SEP. Q. SULPICII MAXIMI.
The tomb of Q. Sulpicius Maximus, who died at the age of eleven years, after having won the first prize in extemporaneous verse at the third celebration of the ludi Capitolini in 95 A.D.. It was found in 1871 in the interior of the east tower of the Porta Salaria, which had been built over it.
 
17 - 97 SEP. C. SULPICI PLATORINI.
The family tomb of C. Sulpicius Platorinus, triumvir monetalis in B.C., on the right bank of the Tiber, close to the end of the pons Agrippae and just inside the later Aurelian wall, excavated in 1880. It was a rectangular structure, 7.44 metres long and 7.wide, with the entrance on the west; the stylobate and front part of the walls were of travertine, the inner walls of brick-faced concrete, and the pavement of white mosaic. In the niches were cinerary urns with inscriptions, and on the pavement were found two statues of heroic size and a bust. The inscriptions found in the tomb date from the time of Augustus to that of the Flavians. It has been reconstructed in the Museo Nazionale Romano.
 
17 - 98 SEP. TITI TATII.
The tomb of Titus Tatius in the LAURETUM (q.v.), on the Aventine, near the Armilustrium . It was the seat of a cult.
 
17 - 99 SEP. VALERIORUM.
see DOMUS VALERIORUM.
 
17 - 100 SERAPEUM.
see ISIS IN CAMPO MARTIO.
 
17 - 101 SERAPIS, AEDES.
A temple in Region VI built by Caracalla according to the testimony of a monumental inscription confirmed by that of two others. The first of these was found near the ruins of the great temple in the gardens of the Palazzo Colonna, and the third not far away, while traces of the cult of Serapis are not infrequent on this part of the Quirinal; some recently discovered remains have characteristic Severan brick-facing, while the plan of the temple is itself Egyptian in character. We must therefore believe that these ruins were those of the temple of Serapis (for the literature of this identification and a description of the ruins, see TEMPLUM SOLIS AURELIANI). 
 
17 - 102 SESSORIUM.
A building of unknown origin, situated at the extreme south- east of Region V, adjoining the amphitheatrum Castrense. It was earlier than the Aurelian wall which cut through it, but is not mentioned before that time unless the emendation Σεσσώριον for Σηστέριον in Plutarch, Galba 28, is admitted. From the beginning of the sixth century it appears as Sessorium in the Excerpta Valesiana 69, and in certain scholia, where paupers and criminals are said to have been buried outside the porta Esquilina or on the Esquiline in qua est Sessorium, although this building was at least 1400 metres from the gate. That part of the building which was outside the Aurelian wall was destroyed, but the extensive inner section became an imperial residence by the beginning of the fourth century, and Helena, the mother of Constantine, lived here. Hence it was called palatium Sessorianum.

Constantine converted one of the halls of the palace into the church of S. Croce in Gerusalemme, and placed in it the fragments of the true cross which Helena brought from Jerusalem. This hall was 34.35 metres long, 21.75 wide and 20 high, with five open arches on each side and windows above, and resembled closely the so-called templum Sacrae Urbis of Vespasian both in construction and scheme of decoration. Constantine walled up the arches and added the apse at the east end, but the columns were not set up until the eighth century. North of the church are the remains of another hall of the Sessorium, consisting of the apse with external buttresses, added almost immediately after its construction, and the start of the nave, probably belonging to the time of Maxentius. This hall was intact down to the sixteenth century and was erroneously called templum Veneris et Cupidinis. In 1887 further remains of a building of about 100 A.D. were found on this spot.
 
17 - 103 AB SEX ARIS.
An unknown locality mentioned in two inscriptions in connection with argentarii, nummularii and sarcinatores.
 
17 - 104 SICILIA.
Apparently an apartment in the imperial palace on the Palatine. Sicilia has sometimes been identified with the porticus, and Iovis cenatio, which would naturally be applied to a dining room, with the so-called triclinium of the DOMUS FLAVIA (q.v.), but these identifications are purely arbitrary. It is not even clear whether both names belong to one apartment or to different rooms in the same part of the palace.
 
17 - 105 SICININUM.
A local designation for the site on the Esquiline now occupied by S. Maria Maggiore. Whether it was the name of a street, square, or complex of buildings, is uncertain, as well as its derivation and meaning. It is possible that CICINENSES (q.v.) may be connected with it. Sicininum occurs in an inscription found in the forum in 1899, which contains a copy of an edict issued by Tarracius Bassus, praefectus urbi, shortly after 368 A.D., twice in the LP, and in other ecclesiastical writers of the period in slightly variant forms.  There is some doubt as to the date of the present church of S. Maria Maggiore, but the latest authority assigns the nave and its mosaics to Pope Liberius, while the mosaics of the triumphal arch belong to the restoration of Sixtus III.. In this case the basilica Sicinini, where Christian worship was held in 367, which was the same as the basilica Liberiana, would be the new building elected by Pope Liberius, not an apartment in an existing Sicininum adapted by him to this purpose. Basilica Sicinini also occurs in Codex Vaticanus 496, where the documents relating the struggle described by Ammianus are collected.
 
17 - 106 SIGILLARIA.
A quarter in Rome where the sigillaria, or small images used as presents on the last days of the Saturnalia, were made and sold. Its location is unknown.
 
17 - 107 SIGNUM AESCULAPII.
see AEDES AESCULAPII.
 
17 - 108 SIGNUM VORTUMNI.
The statue of the Etruscan deity Vortumnus, which stood from very early times in the Vicus Tuscus behind the temple of Castor. Popular etymology derived the name ' a verso amne', as the god was believed to have checked the inundation of the Tiber at this point. In 1549 a pedestal with the inscription: Vortumnus temporibus Diocletiani et Maximiani, was discovered in the Vicus Tuscus near the temple of Castor, which may have belonged to a late restoration of the original statue.
 
17 - 109 SILVANUS, SACELLA.
Shrines of the essentially rustic deity Silvanus, erected by private individuals or collegia in Rome during the empire, several of which have been located by the discovery of inscriptions. These are:

(I) inRegion III (probably), in the via Merulana, near the so-called Auditorium Maecenatis.

( in Region V, near the Lateran (vi. 580).

( in Region V, near the present railway station and that part of the Servian agger which was called monte della Giustizia before its removal.

( in Region VI, near the south-east corner of the thermae Constantinianae, on the site of the present Banca d'Italia.

in Region VI, near the hemicycle on the south-west side of the thermae Diocletiani.

in Region VI in the horti Sallustiani, near the porta Pinciana, in the via Ludovisi, probably under the title Silvanus custos.

in Region IX, on the site of the present church of S. Marco.

in region XII, near the north-west side of the thermae Antoninianae, on the slope below S. Balbina.

in Region XIV, near S. Cosimato.

in Region XIV, between the ponte Sisto and the Villa Faresina.

(1 in Region XIVthe horti Caesaris.

Five other inscriptions clearly refer to shrines of which the location is unknown; while others contain no indication of any shrine, but belong apparently to statues only. These are: (I) in Region VI, at the north-west corner of the thermae. Diocletiani, near S. Susanna; ( in Region VI, on the Pincian near the Villa Medici; ( in Region XIII, on the Aventine near S. Saba; ( in Region XIII, within the limits of the emporium. 
 
17 - 110 SOL (ET LUNA), AEDES.
An ancient shrine of Sol in the circus Maximus. The statue referred to by Tertullian probably represented the god as driving his chariot. The shrine was inside the circus, and may be represented on the Maffei relief, and on coins of Philippus Arabus, where the marking has usually been thought to indicate that of Murcia. The templum Solis et Lunae of the Notitia (Reg. XI) is undoubtedly this temple, and it is so called in the calendars, where the day of dedication is given as 28th August. For a theory that the temple mentioned by Tacitus as apud (near) the circus is to be identified with the so-called temple of Portunus, see ZA 248-250.

The original church of S. Maria del Sole lay, however, near Tor de' Specchi and it was only a little before 1650 that the miraculous Madonna was transferred to S. Stefano delle Carrozze.
 
17 - 111 SOL, TEMPLUM.
A temple built by Aurelian after his return from the east in 273, and famous for its magnificence. Among its treasures were many jewels and much gold, a silver statue of Aurelian, jewelled robes, and a painting of Aurelian and Ulpius Crinitus. The Sol worshipped in this temple was probably a synthesis of several oriental Ba'alim. In connection with the temple was a porticus, in which were stored the vina fiscalia that had been brought from the CICONIAE NIXAE. The last reference to it in antiquity is in the sixth century when eight of the porphyry columns were sent to Constantinople for the church of S. Sophia.

This temple was in Region VII (Not.), and in campo Agrippae, but its exact site has occasioned much discussion. In the gardens of the Palazzo Colonna considerable remains of a great temple were standing in the sixteenth century, consisting principally of part of the cella wall of peperino and the north (right) corner of the facade and pediment. This was known as the Torre Mesa, Torre di Mecenate, and Frontispizio di Nerone; LR, fig. 166 from Duperac, Vestigi, pl. 31 (1575). Part of these ruins were removed at the end of the fifteenth century, and more between 1549 and 1555, but the final destruction of the Torre itself was not effected until about 1630. Numerous drawings and plans of these ruins are extant, made by the architects and artists of the period, from Sangallo  in the fifteenth century to Giovannoli and Donati in the early seventeenth; the plans, however, by their differences in detail show that they have been arbitrarily filled in. The building stood on the edge of the hill, on the west side of the present Via della Consulta, and extended due east and west, with a great flight of steps leading from the platform at the rear of the cella to the plain some 20 metres below. This flight was curiously built, being divided into double narrow rows of steps on each side of a central space. The temple area was surrounded with a wall containing niches but not with the usual porticus. The cella was built of peperino lined with marble, and was surrounded by marble columns in front and on the sides. The shafts of these columns were 17.66, the capitals 2.47, and the entablature 4.83 metres in height. The corner of the pediment now lying in the Colonna gardens is the largest architectural fragment in Rome, its dimensions being 3.70 by 2.80 by 3.90 metres, and its weight 100 tons. This temple has been identified with that of Sol by some scholars, who would include its site inRegion VII and interpret in campo Agrippae (v. sup.) very broadly, as for example by Lanciani in opposition to those who believe that this was the temple of SERAPIS (q.v.).

The latter point out that the plan corresponds with that of an Egyptian temple of the new kingdom, its essential parts being an almost square court with a portico, a broad shallow hall on its west side, and three rectangular cellae behind it. They note that the architectural detail is very similar to that of the Hadrianeum.

If we accept this view, the temple of Sol lay north of the campus Agrippae. Here, on the east side of the Corso between the Via S. Claudio and the Via Frattina, have been found tufa and peperino walls, granite columns and other architectural remains, and a drawing of Palladio, of the sixteenth century, represents a building on this site which consists of two adjacent enclosures running north and south. One of these has apsidal ends and is 90.50 metres long and 42.70 wide; the other is rectangular and 126 metres long and 86.38 wide. These enclosures occupy the space from the Piazza S. Silvestro to the Via Borgognona, and are identified with the porticus templi Solis (v. supra), while the temple itself is supposed to have extended further north, although no traces of any sort have been found north of the Via Frattina.
 
17 - 112 SOL ELAGABALUS.
see ELAGABALUS.
 
17 - 113 SOL MALACHBELUS (BELUS).
A shrine of the tutelary god of the city of Palmyra, whose cult was established in Rome by the Palmyrenes before the introduction of Sol by Aurelian, certainly before 102 A.D., and perhaps in the Flavian period. The evidence for this cult is epigraphical and indicates a site on the right bank of the Tiber, on the Via Portuensis, near the limits of the city.
 
17 - 114 SPES, TEMPLUM NOVUM.
A temple in Region VII, known only from Not.
 
17 - 115 SPES, AEDES.
A temple in the forum Holitorium, built and dedicated by A. Atilius Calatinus during the first Punic war. It was struck by lightning in 2B.C., burned in 2and restored the following year by a special commission, and burned again in 3Germanicus dedicated the temple in A.D., necessarily after a restoration, but it is altogether improbable that Augustus failed to repair the damage of 31 B.C., and it is to him that Frank attributes the existing structure. In 179 B.C. M. Fulvius built a porticuspost Spei a Tiberi ad aedem  APOLLINIS MEDICI.

There is no further mention of this temple, but it is probably the middle and largest of the three of which the ruins now exist beneath the church of S. Nicola in Carcere and belong for the most part to the period of the republic. It was about 30 metres long and io wide, of the Ionic order, and amphiprostyle hexastyle. A lofty flight of steps, twelve or thirteen in number, led up to the pronaos, and in the middle of these steps was a long pedestal. Three of the fluted columns of travertine, 8.70 metres in height and 6.90 in diameter, are built into the facade, while portions of the cella wall and of other columns have been incorporated in other parts of the church.
 
17 - 116 SPES VETUS.
An ancient shrine on the Esquiline which is mentioned twice in connection with the legendary victory of Horatius over the Etruscans in 477 B.C.. Nothing further is known of the temple, but it gave its name 'ad Spem veterem' to its immediate vicinity, the district just inside the later Porta Praenestina, where several aqueducts met (see HORTI VARIANI). It was the highest point on the east side of the city, and was therefore selected for the entry of almost all the aqueducts.
 
17 - 117 SPINO.
A brook in Rome, mentioned only once, and sometimes identified with that which flowed down through the Subura, across the forum and Velabrum to the Tiber, and was afterwards converted into the cloaca Maxima. This identification is arbitrary.
 
17 - 118 SPOLIARIUM.
a building in Region II (Not.), evidently very near the Colosseum, in which the dead bodies of gladiators were stripped of their armour.
 
17 - 119 STABULUM.
The name of some one of the imperial buildings on the Palatine. Location and use are unknown, and the whole may be an invention of the writer.
 
17 - 120 STABULA FACTIONIS PRASINAE.
see STABULA IIII FACTIONUM.
 
17 - 121 STABULA IIII FACTIONUM.
The stables of the four companies (factiones), which owned and managed the horses for races in the circus. To these four, distinguished by their colours, albata, russea, prasina, veneta, Domitian added two more, purpurea, aurata, but these did not last long, and about the beginning of the fourth century two, albata and russea, were merged in the veneta and prasina.  The Notitia gives their number in the fourth century as eight, and the Curiosum as six, which is therefore correct. These stabula were in the southern part of the campus Martius, near the circus Flaminius in Region IX. They were probably near each other but quite separate, and although the others are often mentioned in literature and inscriptions that of the factio prasina is the only one that can be approximately located. This became the principal company in the first century and was favoured by the emperors, especially Caligula, who dined and slept in its stable, and constructed a magnificent stall of marble with an ivory manger for his favourite stallion Incitatus. The presence of the name in that of the church, S. Lorenzo in Prasino (HCh 28, and the discovery of inscriptions prove that this stable was in the immediate neighbourhood of the Cancelleria (HJ 595). Remains of a frescoed court found under the Palazzo Regis, east of the Cancelleria, may well have belonged to this building, and also an inscribed lead pipe, which was not, however, found in situ. With it was found a pipe inscribed L. Hermoni Iusti (ib. 7468).

Both appear to belong to the middle or end of the first century A.D. Lanciani believes that the bronze Hercules in the Rotunda of the Vatican and the Hercules and Telephus of the Museo Chiaramonti originally stood here, but not the Belvedere torso. The funerary inscription set up in his own lifetime by a nummularius de basilica Iulia, who ends by saying 'hic in iiii stabulis agitavit nunq(uam),' may perhaps be paralleled with the conclusion of Trimalchio's proposed inscription '.
 
17 - 122 STADIUM AUGUSTI.
A temporary wooden structure erected by Augustus in the campus Martius in 28 B.C. in which he celebrated the battle of Actium with gymnastic contests.
 
17 - 123 STADIUM CAESARIS.
A temporary stadium constructed by Caesar in the campus Martius for the athletic games which he celebrated in 46 B.C.
 
17 - 124 STADIUM PALATINUM.
See DOMUS AUGUSTIANA 
 
17 - 125 STADIUM DOMITIANI.
The stadium which Domitian built in the campus Martius for athletic contests. After the Colosseum was injured by fire in 217, it was used for several years for gladiatorial combats. Its arcades were occupied by brothels as were those of the circus Maximus. The stadium was restored by Alexander Severus, and hence was sometimes called in the Middle Ages circus Alexandri. In the fourth century it was one of the buildings that are said to have aroused the special admiration of Constantius. It had 30088 loca, that is, seats for about 15,000 spectators. According to the legend, S. Agnes met a martyr's death in the brothels in the arcades of this stadium, and in her honour a church was built in the ninth century in the middle of the cavea on the west side, which was afterwards known as S. Agnese in Agone or de Cryptis Agonis, the word agon being used both for a gymnastic contest and for the place of its celebration. There was also a church of S. Nicolas de Agone. The Piazza Navona, the largest in the city, now called officially Circo Agonale, preserves almost exactly the shape and size of the stadium. The piazza itself corresponds closely with the arena, the length of which seems to have been about 250 metres, and the surrounding buildings stand on the ruins of the cavea. Under the church of S. Agnese remains of brick and concrete walls, travertine pilasters and the seats of the cavea are still to be seen, and other traces have been found beneath the existing buildings at other points. See OBELISCI ISEI CAMPENSIS.
 
17 - 126 STAGNUM AGRIPPAE.
An artificial pool of considerable size, constructed by Agrippa by the side of his THERMAE (q.v.), with which and the HORTI (q.v.) it formed one whole. This stagnum was fed by the aqua Virgo, which Agrippa finished in B.C., and was probably connected with the Tiber by the EURIPUS(q.v.). It was almost certainly on the west side of the thermae, north of the present Corso Vittorio Emanuele, and between the Via di Monterone and the Via dei Sediari, an area afterwards partly occupied by the PORTICUS BONI EVENTUS (q.v.) of the fourth century.
 
17 - 127 STAGNUM NERONIS.
The artificial pond constructed by Nero within the DOMUS AUREA (q.v.), in the low ground between the Velia, the Esquiline, and the Caelian, where the Colosseum was afterwards built.
 
17 - 128 STATIO ANNONAE.
The headquarters of the praefectus annonae, who was charged with the administration of the food supply of the city of Rome. In the fourth century A.D. a structure was erected in front of the temple of HERCULES POMPEIANUS (?) (q.v.)-a rectangular porticus, some 30 metres long and wide, with columns supporting arches on three sides and a brick wall at the back. Traces of what may have been another hall connected with it have been found to the north-east.

The discovery of various inscriptions connected with the annona in the neighbourhood and of an inscription of the older Symmachus on the opposite bank of the Tiber has led to the identification of this portico with the statio. Into it was built the original diaconia, which was later on enlarged by Pope Hadrian I.
 
17 - 129 STATIO AQUARUM.
see LACUS IUTURNAE, fin.
 
17 - 130 STATIONES MUNICIPIORUM.
Certain offices near the Volcanal and temple of Concord, which were probably the headquarters of organised corporations of the inhabitants of foreign towns who were residing or doing business in Rome. Some architectural fragments and inscriptions belonging to the stationes of several cities have been found in this and other parts of the forum.
 
17 - 131 STATIONES VIGILUM.
see COHORTIUM VIGILUM STATIONES.
 
17 - 132 STATUA ANTONII MUSAE.
A statue erected by the Romans in honour of Antonius Musa, the physician of Augustus, after the latter's death, near the temple of Aesculapius on the island.
 
17 - 133 STATUA ATTI NAVI.
The statue of Attus Navius erected on the spot where the augur performed the miracle of cutting a whetstone with a razor, on the left side of the steps leading up from the comitium to the curia. It was of bronze, less than life size, and represented Navius with covered head. The language of Livy implies that the statue was no longer standing, and Pliny states that its base was destroyed when the senate house was burned at the funeral of Clodius, but Dionysius says explicitly that it was standing in his time. The latter was probably mistaken.
 
17 - 134 STATUA L. BRUTI.
The statue of the regicide which stood on the Capitol with those of the seven kings.
 
17 - 135 STATUA CINCI.
See SEPULCRUM CINCIORUM.
 
17 - 136 STATUA CLOELIAE.
An equestrian statue of Cloelia, the Roman hostage, who escaped from Lars Porsenna by swimming the Tiber, was sent back, and then freed by the Etruscan king with marked honours for her bravery. There are some variants in the tradition of this statue; it was said to have been erected by the state; by the other hostages; by their parents; and to have stood in summa sacra via. It probably did stand in summa sacra via, near the temple of Jupiter Stator. According to Dionysius (loc. cit.) the statue had disappeared in his time, and was supposed to have been burned. The language of Livy and Plutarch agrees with this, but Seneca (de consol. 16) and Servius state explicitly that it was standing in the first and fourth centuries. It seems impossible to reconcile these statements without supposing that the old statue had been restored, or a new one erected, early in the first century.
 
17 - 137 STATUA HERMODORI.
A statue of Hermodorus of Ephesus, the interpreter of the laws of the decemviri, situated in the comitium.
 
17 - 138 STATUA HORATII COCLITIS.
A statue, originally set up on the comitium, which was struck by lightning and removed to the Volcanal. Its later history is unknown.
 
17 - 139 STATUA (LORICATA) DIVI IULII.
A statue of Julius Caesar, to the base of which official documents were affixed, mentioned only by Plin. The base of a large equestrian statue in front of, and orientated with, the temple of Divus Iulius, which has been identified with theEQUUS TREMULI, is far more likely to have been the base of this statue. Various inscriptions in which a loricata occurs should probably be referred to a building; cf. CASTORUM, AEDES.
 
17 - 140 STATUA MAMURI.
see CLIVUS MAMURI.
 
17 - 141 STATUA Q. MARCI REGIS.
see BASIS Q. MARCI REGIS.
 
17 - 142 STATUA Q. MARCI TREMULI.
see EQUUS TREMULI.
 
17 - 143 STATUA MARSYAE.
A statue of the Phrygian Silenus, which stood in an enclosure in the middle of the forum, together with the figtree, olive and vine (see FICUS, OLEA, VITIS), near the TRIBUNAL PRAETORIS (q.v.), and the lacus Curtius.

This statue appears in relief on the famous plutei (see reff. under ROSTRA AUGUSTI); and coins struck by L. Marcius Censorinus between 86 and 81 B.C. represent the satyr standing on a square pedestal with right foot advanced, a wine skin thrown over his left shoulder with his left hand holding its opening, and his right hand raised. The statue is nude except for sandals and the Phrygian hat (pileus), and represents the Greek type of the fourth century B.C. How long before 8 B.C. this statue was erected in the forum, and why it was brought here, we do not know. According to a recent ingenious theory it was brought from Apamea in 188 B.C. by Cn. Manlius Vulso because of the legendary connection of that city with the tomb of Aeneas, and placed near the lacus Curtius because of a certain parallelism between the legendary self-sacrifice of an Apamean hero and Curtius. The statue was often crowned with flowers, and a certain P. Munatius was once thrown into prison for stealing them.

Marsyas came to be regarded as the symbol of liberty and under the empire his statue was set up in the fora of those towns in the provinces that possessed the ius Italicum for the Marsyas of the forum.
 
17 - 144 STATUA MINUCII.
see COLUMNA MINUCIA.
 
17 - 145 STATUA PLANCI.
the statue, otherwise unknown, of a certain Plancus, probably in the vicus Longus on the Quirinal
 
17 - 146 STATUA POMPEII.
a statue of Pompey on the Rostra Vetera, overturned by the plebs and replaced at the same time as that of Sulla
 
17 - 147 STATUAE REGUM ROMANORUM.
The statues of seven kings of Rome- including Titus Tatius and therefore, presumably, excluding Tarquinius Superbus-erected on the Capitoline, probably on the eastern part of the area Capitolina. The statues of Romulus and Tatius were togatae sine tunicis, sine anulis; those of Numa, Servius Tullius and Tarquinius Priscus had rings on their fingers and were probably of later date. All of them were probably set up between 350 and 150 B.C.
 
17 - 148 STATUA ROMULI.
A statue of Romulus that is said to have stood in sacra via a parte Palati venientibus, while one of Titus Tatius was at the other end of the street a rostris. It is improbable that this statement is due to a confusion of these statues with those on the Capitoline (cf. STATUAE REGUM ROMANORUM).
 
17 - 149 STATUA SALONINI GALLIENI.
A statue of Saloninus Gallienus, a son of the Emperor, which stood in pede montis Romulei, hoc est ante sacram viam inter templumFaustinae ac Vestam ad arcum  Fabianum. The statement does not inspire confidence, and may be an invention.
 
17 - 150 STATUA SULLAE.
An equestrian statue of gilt bronze, erected in rostris or pro rostris in 80 or 79 B.C. For a similar statue erected by the inhabitants of the vicus laci Fundani.
 
17 - 151 STATUA TARACIAE GAIAE.
see GAIA.
 
17 - 152 STATUA TIBERIS.
In Eins. Tiberis is mentioned twice, between the forum of Trajan and the arch of Severus; and most authorities are inclined to recognise in it the famous statue of a river-god (Marforio), now in the Museo Capitolino, which stood near the church of S. Martina (see CURIA). 
 
17 - 153 STATUA VALERI CORVINI.
A statue of M. Valerius Corvinus with a crow on his head, erected by Augustus in his forum.
 
17 - 154 STATUA VALERIANA.
A statue of some member of the gens Valeria, on the right bank of the Tiber (Not. Reg. XIV), which gave its name to a vicus statuae Valerianae.
 
17 - 155 STIMULA.
see LUCUS STIMULAE.
 
17 - 156 STRENIA, SACELLUM.
A shrine of the goddess quae faceret strenuum in the Colosseum valley, mentioned only as the starting-point of the Sacra via. The lucus Streniae, mentioned only by Symmachus, probably adjoined the shrine, but the exact site cannot be determined.
 
17 - 157 SUBAGER.
see CAMPUS VIMINALIS.
 
17 - 158 SUB NOVIS.
see TABERNAE NOVAE.
 
17 - 159 SUB VETERIBUS.
see TABERNAE VETERES.
 
17 - 160 SUBURA.
The valley between the southern end of the Viminal and the western end of the Esquiline, or Oppius, which was connected with the forum by the ARGILETUM (q.v.), and continued eastward between the Oppius and the Cispius by the CLIVUS SUBURANUS(q.v.), ending at the Porta Esquilina. This district is now traversed by the Via Cavour and the Via dello Statuto. Another depression extended from the Subura northward between the Viminal and the Quirinal, and a third north-east between the Cispius and the Viminal that was marked by the vicus Patricius. The beginning of the Subura was called primae fauces and was perhaps situated near the PRAEFECTURA URBANA.

Two ancient theories of the derivation of Subura must be rejected; a third connected it with pagus Succusanus, Suc(c)usa. The Sucusa was on the Caelian, but it is probable that Subura was a corrupt form of the same word, which for some reason had been transferred, and in historical times was given to this valley and used as an adjective in ' regio Suburana' (see SUCUSA and REGIONES QUATTUOR, and literature there cited). Subura is found on a fragment of the Marble Plan , in late literature, and continued in use during the Middle Ages in the names of several churches situated between the Tor di Conti and S. Pietro in Vincoli. Lucia in Orfea or in Silice is also called in capite Suburae.

References to the character of this district are frequent in Latin literature and inscriptions. It was fervens, clamosa, dirty and wet, a resort of harlots, of dealers in provisions and delicacies and finery, and of tradesmen of various sorts. That there were also dwellings of more distinguished persons is shown by the fact that Caesar once lived here and L. Arruntius Stella, consul in 101 A.D.. Of a probable late division into Subura maior and Subura minor, to be inferred from the reading of one inscription, nothing further is known. For rulers and scribes of the Jewish synagogue of the Subura.
 
17 - 161 SUBURANENSES, SUBURENSES.
see SUBURA.
 
17 - 162 SUC(C)USA.
A conjectural emendation for SUBURA (q.v.) in Festus (348), where Antistius Labeo is quoted as the authority for a list of montes in the SEPTIMONTIUM (q.v.), eight instead of seven. This emendation is based on the existence of a pagus Succusanus, a district which was of course outside the limits of the city in its early stages. This pagus is mentioned in two of our sources. Those who accept this emendation locate the Sucusa on the Caelian, south-east of the Ceroniae, just inside the porta Caelimontana of the Servian wall (HF i.), and the pagus Succusanus still further east, the district extending north-east from the Lateran. This position of the pagus accords with the statement of Festus but hardly with that of Varro. The whole question of the relation of Subura, Succusa and pagus Succusanus, and the location of the latter is very obscure and has given rise to much discussion. See especially Wissowa, Septimontium und Subura, Satura Viadrina, and the other literature cited in these articles, and under Septimontium.
 
17 - 163 SUMMANUS, AEDES.
A temple near the circus Maximus, which probably replaced an altar ascribed to Titus Tatius. It was built during the war with Pyrrhus, and the hypothesis is plausible that this was done because the terracotta figure of Summanus in the pediment of the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus was reported to have been struck by lightning and hurled into the Tiber. The temple of Summanus was itself struck by lightning in 197 B.C.. Its day of dedication was 20th June. There is little doubt that it stood on the west side of the circus towards the Aventine. The temple of DIS PATER (q.v.), mentioned only in Not. Reg. XI, is perhaps to be identified with this temple of Summanus.
 
17 - 164 SUMMUM CHORAGIUM.
A building in Region III in which the machinery and apparatus for the public games in the amphitheatre were stored. Its site is indicated by the discovery of numerous inscriptions on the south side of the via Labicana, between the Colosseum and S. Clemente, in the immediate neighbourhood of the ludus Magnus and ludus Matutinus. These inscriptions show that this choragium was administered by imperial freedmen and slaves, and summum has therefore been interpreted as meaning imperial, in distinction from other choragia that belonged to aerarium. It may also mean the principal storehouse of the kind. The building was probably erected before the time of Hadrian, and the inscriptions belong to the second century. It gave its name to a vicus summi Choragi.
 
17 - 165 SYRACUSAE ET TECHNYPHION.
A chamber in a tower in the house of Augustus on the Palatine, to which that emperor sometimes resorted. Technyphion means 'little workshop,' and with Syracuse may be compared another chamber called SICILIA (q.v.). It may, as Hulsen suggests, have derived its name from its sunny situation.
 
18 T.
18 - 1 TABERNAE CIRCA FORUM.
The shops that were built in the forum valley when that became the market-place for the settlements on the surrounding hills, assigned by tradition to the first Tarquin. They belonged to the state and were let out to tenants, who were at first dealers in provisions, especially butchers, from whom the shops were called tabernae lanienae. At some time before 3B.C. these occupants were banished to the district north of the forum (see MACELLUM） and the shops turned over to money changers and bankers, argentarii. In 3B.C. an attempt was made at decoration of the forum, and gilded shields were distributed to the domini argentariarum. Argentariae appears to have been the designation of these tabernae until 2B.C. when some at least of them were burned. In the following year the septem tabernae were rebuilt, and those called novae afterwards, but for any definite notice of this building we are dependent on a corrupt passage in Festus (230). This, with Miller's emendations, reads: (plebeiastabernas no)vas vocant nos(tra aetate, ut dicunt V tabern. This emendation is probably sufficiently correct to warrant the conclusion that the shops burned in 2and not rebuilt in 209 were reerected before 192 and called plebeiae or novae. The first name, however, if it ever existed, did not come into common use, for we find no other instance of its occurrence. These tabernae were called argentariae novae, or novae alone. Once the old designation, argentariae alone, is used. In distinction from the novae, others were called vetcres, a name that occurs first in Plautus. Thenceforth sub veteribus and sub novis were regularly used to designate the opposite sides of the forum, as is proved by a passage in Cicero. This and other topographical indications show that the tabernae novae were on the north side of the forum, in front of the earliest basilica Aemilia, and the veteres on the south side between the vicus Tuscus and the temple of Saturn. The latest references which necessarily imply the separate existence of these tabernae are in Livy and Verrius Flaccus, and they could not have survived the building of the basilica Iulia and the restoration of the basilica Aemilia by Augustus. Thereafter the argentarii had offices in these basilicas, but ' sub novis' and 'sub veteri- bus ' continued in use as local designations of the north and south sides of the forum, the older shops being placed on the shady side.

The tabernae septem quae postea quinque, burned in 2and rebuilt the next year were not the tabernae novae, and if we accept the emendation proposed for Festus 230 (see above), Verrius cited the change from septem to quinque as -analogous to that from plebeiae to novae. On the other hand, their identification with the veteres has often been claimed, but without convincing evidence. It is more probable that they were different, and lay perhaps somewhat to the east of the veteres. They are not the quinque tabernae of Juvenal, as has been asserted.

Over these tabernae were galleries from which the people witnessed the games in the forum, called Maeniana from C. Maenius, who is said to have built them first after his victory in the battle of Actium.
 
18 - 2 TABERNAE ARGENTARIAE.
see TABERNAE.
 
18 - 3 TABERNAE PLEBEIAE.
see TABERNAE.
 
18 - 4 TABERNAE SEPTEM (QUINQUE).
see TABERNAE.
 
18 - 5 TABERNAE DECEM.
see DECEM TABERNAE.
 
18 - 6 TABULA VALERIA.
A name used twice by Cicero, where it indicates a definite spot in the forum. Three explanations of this term have been given:

(I) that it means the bank of Valerius, to which Terentia had been forced by Clodius to go in order to make some declaration about her husband's estate. This interpretation is supported by a similar meaning, bank of Sestius, given to tabula Sestia in Cicero, pro Quinct. 25.

( that it was a painting by Q. Fabius Pictor on the wall of the Curia Hostilia, which represented the victory of M. Valerius Messalla over Hiero and the Carthaginians in 264 B.C.. This is the explanation of the scholiast on the passage from the speech against Vatinius, and is doubtless drawn from Pliny. Taking this statement of a scholiast as a basis, Manutius conjectured that there was a sort of tribunes' court 'ad tabulam Valeriam,' to which Terentia was forced to go, presumably to answer for Cicero's property in some way, and cited the passage from his speech in Vat. as a parallel, for here tabula Valeria collegae tui may mean that this was an assembling place for the tribunes, and that those who were gathered there prevented Vatinius from casting Bibulus into prison. It is also known that the subsellia tribunorum were near the basilica Porcia and, therefore, the curia. This is the view that has been generally accepted.

( tabula Valeria was a bronze tablet on which were inscribed the famous Valerio-Horatian laws, which concerned especially the office and functions of the tribunes. This was set up in the forum, near the subsellia tribunorum, in order that the tribunes might consult its provisions whenever necessary, and hence it came to be used as an indication of locality. In the same way tabula Sestia was a tablet containing a copy of the Licinio-Sestian laws, which probably stood also at the west end of the forum.

The first of these explanations must be rejected; of the other two, the latter seems a little more probable.
 
18 - 7 TABULARIUM.
A repository for state archives, probably in large part those belonging to the aerarium in the neighbouring temple of Saturn, that was built by Q. Lutatius Catulus in 78 B.C. on the south-east slope of the Capitoline. Before its construction the ταμειε̂ονἀγορανόμων was used for the purpose of preserving the state records (see ATRIUM PUBLICUM). It is not mentioned in literature, but its identification is based on two inscriptions, one copied by Signorili and Poggio and the other still partially preserved in one of the rooms of the building. The second story seems to have been added, or at least rebuilt, about the end of the first century (see below), but nothing else is known of the history of the building until the reign of Boniface VIII (about 1300 A.D.), when the present tower at the north end was erected. Later, Michelangelo destroyed the entire upper and western part, and built the present Palazzo del Senatore directly upon the ancient structure.

This building, trapezoidal in shape, occupied all the space between the clivus Capitolinus on the south-west and the flight of steps (gradus Monetae ?) which led up past the carcer to the arx on the north-east. On the forum side the foundation wall began on the level of the area Volcani, and the substructio (cf. inscription) consisted of this wall, 3.43 metres thick, with a series of six recesses out of which narrow windows open, and a corridor between it and the tufa rock of the hill itself. This corridor is now blocked at both ends and may always have been so. Above this corridor of the substructio is the corridor of the first story of the Tabularium proper, 5 metres wide and o1 high, extending the whole length of the building and originally open at both ends, but not connected with any other part. Its front was an arcade of the Doric order, with engaged columns of peperino. There were eleven arches, 7.50 metres in height and 3.54-3.60 in width, all but one of which have been walled up. This arcade afforded the means of communication between the two portions of the Capitoline, and formed a striking architectural terminus for the forum. Its effect, however, was greatly marred by the erection of the temple of Vespasian and the porticus Deorum Consentium, and by the enlargement of the temple of Concord. All of the second story was removed by Michelangelo, but the few fragments that have been found indicate an arcade of the Corinthian order immediately above that of the first story. These fragments are apparently of the Flavian period, but it is impossible to say whether this story was an addition or restoration.

Behind the corridor of the first story are supporting walls and piers, and one large hall on a higher level than the corridor, which probably opened out on the Asylum. From this hall a long flight of sixty-six steps, partly cut in the rock, leads down to the ground through a fine arched doorway in the wall of the substructure. These steps have no connection with any other part of the building, and afforded direct access from the forum to the upper part of the Tabularium and the summit of the Capitoline. When the temple of Vespasian was built, its podium effectually blocked the entrance to this staircase. On the north-east side of the Tabularium were two stories of rooms fronting on the way up to the arx. Those of the first story opened into each other, and were connected by a stairway with the corridor of the substruction. Part of the wall of the south-west side is still standing, with a large rectangular niche opening on the clivus Capitolinus, which is now used as the entrance; while a small piece of the travertine plinth of the north-west fagade is preserved in the cellars of the Palazzo del Senatore.

The masonry of the Tabularium shows the best republican workmanship. It is wholly of opus quadratum, with blocks uniformly two Roman feet in height and width, and averaging four in length. They are laid in alternate courses of headers and stretchers (emplecton), with a thin layer of cement. The outer walls are of sperone (Gabine stone), the bases and capitals of the half-columns and the imposts of the arches of travertine, and the inner walls of Anio tufa; while most of the vaults are of concrete. The building was once used as a storehouse for salt and the inner walls have suffered much from corrosion. For a complete description of the Tabularium and its literature, see Delbrueck, Hellenistische Bauten in Latium, 1907.
 
18 - 8 TARENTUM.
A section of the most westerly part of the campus Martius- in extremo Martio campo. Hot springs and other traces of volcanic action led to the belief that here was an entrance to the lower world, and to the establishment of the cult of Dis pater and Proserpina. The legend of the discovery of the altar of Dis twenty feet below the surface of the ground by a Sabine Valerius is given by Valerius Maximus. The Tarentum is usually mentioned in connection with the ludi saeculares, when sacrifices were offered to Dis. The usual and correct form is Tarentum, but Terentum occurs now and then with false etymologies. No explanation of the word Tarentum has yet been found. The district was also called πυ.. It has recently been maintained that the Tarentum must be sought much closer to the river, and that it must be a subterranean shrine, resembling the so-called mundus on the Palatine. But it would be difficult to point to any site in the Campus Martius where these two conditions would be fulfilled; there is no rock in which such a shrine could have been excavated, and it would have been liable to frequent inundations.
 
18 - 9 TARPEIA, AIX.
A name apparently applied to the whole Capitoline hill, which is found twice in Latin poetry
 
18 - 10 TARPEIA, RUPES.
see TARPEIUS, MONS.
 
18 - 11 TARPEIUS, MONS.
The earliest name of the Capitoline hill, if we are to believe the statements of Roman and Greek writers. It is also used of the whole hill, apparently, in Not. app. (montes VII . . Tarpeius) and in Auct. de vir. ill. (ii. 7), while in other passages it might refer to the whole hill or, more probably, only to the Capitolium. The corresponding Greek name was Τα.., which occurs with some frequency.

From the precipitous cliffs of this hill criminals, convicted of capital crimes, were hurled to their death, and these cliffs were regularly called Tarpeium saxum, saxum alone or Tarpeium alone. Twice Tarpeius is used alone, with reference to other things than executions, where mons is probably to be supplied, and Tarpeia sedes.

The alleged tradition that the Capitoline was first called mons Tarpeius was probably only an invention of the Roman antiquarians, and Tarpeius was most probably, according to the general rule in such cases, derived from that of a gens Tarpeia, some of whom lived in the immediate neighbourhood, and one of whose women was the heroine of the myth of Tarpeia which circulated in so many versions. For some discussion of this question and references to the abundant literature, see Sanders.

That Tarpeius mons continued in use to some extent is shown by an inscription of 259 A.D., and there seems to be no doubt that it was sometimes applied to the whole Capitoline hill, but, like Capitolinus, that it was also used of the southern summit alone.

Rupes Tarpeia is clearly identified by Varro with saxum Tarpeium, but nowhere in extant Latin literature is this name found in connection with the execution of criminals. In several passages it is closely connected with the cult of Jupiter, once with the temple of Saturn, once it occurs with no topographical indication, while Tacitus connects it with the centum gradus, of which nothing further is known. The equivalent of rupes in Greek seems to be κρημνός, or πέτρα.

There has been much divergence of opinion as to the position of this saxum from which criminals were thrown, but the unequivocal statement that it overhung the forum, and that executions could be seen by all the people assembled there, together with the close connection between rupes Tarpeia and the temple of Jupiter, point clearly to the cliffs at the south-west corner of the hill, over the ancient vicus Iugarius and the modern Piazza della Consolazione. A recent attempt to locate the saxum on the arx (Pais, Anc. Legends 109-127) is unsuccessful, and takes no account of Suetonius, where Tarpeius mons at any rate could not possibly mean the arx overlooking the forum. For further discussion and literature, see Jord, and CAPITOLINUS MONS.
 
18 - 12 TASCOGENSES.
those who dwelt in some wholly unknown district of the city, mentioned only in one inscription of the fourth century
 
18 - 13 AD TAURUM.
a locality near the thermae of Trajan, which occurs as a name of various mediaeval churches, and very likely has a classical origin. It is distinct from the FORUM TAURI
 
18 - 14 DE TEGLATU.
an unknown locality, mentioned only in two inscriptions of the fourth century (CIL vi. 10099=318gg; 31893 b, 2; BC 189357), possibly a centre for the manufacture or sale of tegulae.
 
18 - 15 TELLURENSES.
The inhabitants of the district about the temple of Tellus (q.v.) on the Esquiline 
 
18 - 16 TELLUS, AEDES.
A temple vowed by P. Sempronius Sophus during an earthquake which occurred during a battle with the Picentes in 268 B.C.  Rosch. v. 338 remarks that the vow is a natural one enough in the circumstances. It was doubtless built at once, although its erection is ascribed to the city or senate in two sources. It was on the Esquiline, in Carinis, on the site formerly occupied by the house of SP. CASSIUS (q.v.), which was said to have been pulled down in 495 B.C., near the house of Antonius and that of Q. CICERO (q.v.). The latter restored the temple about 54 B.C., and apparently gained possession of some of the land hitherto belonging to the temple. The day of dedication was 13th December, when Ceres was associated with Tellus as on other occasions. The fact that the worship of Tellus was very ancient makes it probable that there was a much earlier cult centre on the site afterwards occupied by the temple.

The temple was sometimes used for meetings of the senate, and on its walls was a map of Italy. It was standing in the fourth century, but nothing is known of its later history. Its site was very probably between the present Vie del Colosseo and dei Serpenti, but Ligorio's account of the discovery of remains belonging to it is open to suspicion. For the church of S. Salvator in Tellumine, and for a frieze representing a gigantomachy, which perhaps came from this temple, see Mitt. 1905.
 
18 - 17 TEMPESTATES, AEDES.
A temple erected by L. Cornelius Scipio, who had vowed it when overtaken by a storm in Corsican waters in 259 B.C.. Its day of dedication was not 1st June, but 23rd December. It was in Region I, and probably between the porta Capena and the temple of Mars.
 
18 - 18 TERMINUS, FANUM.
A shrine in the cella of Jupiter himself, the central one in the great temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, perhaps consisting only of the rude stone that represented Terminus, above which there was an opening in the roof. At least as early as the beginning of the second century B.C. the presence of this cult was explained by the legend that there were shrines or altars on this site of several deities who, when the ground was desired for the temple of Jupiter, allowed themselves to be dispossessed, except Terminus whose refusal to be moved was regarded as a prophecy of the permanence of the cult and of Rome itself. Later Juventas was joined with Terminus in the story. The probable explanation is that the stone was a boundary stone, a sign of Jupiter's function as the guardian of truth and loyalty, and that the opening in the roof indicated his connection with the sky.
 
18 - 19 TERRA MATER
A shrine of which the existence and location just south- east of the baths of Caracalla seem to be indicated by the evidence of three inscriptions, two of them found in the vineyards behind the church of S. Cesareo.
 
18 - 20 TESTACEUS MONS.
Monte Testaccio, the modern name for the artificial hill, south of the Aventine and the horrea Galbiana in Region XIII, which rises to a height of 50 metres above sea-level, and is about a kilometre in circumference. It is composed entirely of fragments of earthen jars (amphorae, dolia) in which corn, wine, and produce of various kinds had been brought to the horrea from Africa, Spain, and Gaul. Many of these jars were inscribed on the neck or handle, and a large number of these inscriptions have been recovered. They date from 140 to 251 A.D., but it is certain that the dumping of debris on this spot began as early as the time of Augustus, and that the hill had reached its present height by the middle of the second century. The distribution of the debris shows that the hill rose in the midst of the horrea. Under one of its sides the tomb of the RUSTICELII (q.v.) was found. 
 
18 - 21 THEATRUM BALBI.
A stone theatre built by L. Cornelius Balbus the younger, and dedicated in B.C.. It was injured by fire during the reign of Titus and restored, probably by Domitian: Ausonius speaks of it as still in use, and it is mentioned in Not. (Reg. IX). It had 11510o loca, or room for about 7700 spectators. Four small columns of onyx, set up by Balbus in his theatre, were regarded at that time as very wonderful. The location of this building near the Tiber, directly north of the upper end of the island, is indicated by the slight elevation known in the Middle Ages as the Monte dei Cenci. It occupied part at least of the ground covered by the Palazzo Cenci, the buildings between it and the Via Arenula, and the Piazza Cenci. The curve of the cavea was nearly tangent to the Via Arenula, and its main axis ran northwest-southeast. The theatre is marked on two fragments of the Marble Plan.
 
18 - 22 THEATRUM MARCELLI.
Julius Caesar planned to build a theatre, and to make room for it he removed the temple of PIETAS (q.v.) in the forum Holitorium and other shrines and private houses, but the building was not actually constructed by him but by Augustus, who found it necessary to purchase additional land from private owners at his own expense. The theatre was a memorial of Marcellus and dedicated in his name. In B.C. the work of construction was so far advanced that part of the celebration of the ludi saeculares took place within the theatre, but the dedication did not occur until 13, or less probably II. On this occasion magnificent games were held. Augustus placed four remarkable marble columns from the house of Scaurus on the Palatine 'in regia theatri ', but whether this was the middle door in the scaena, as was .probably the case in the theatre of POMPEIUS (q.v.), or one of the halls at the ends of the scaena (see below), is uncertain. Besides the ordinary form of the name, the theatre was also called theatrum Marcellianum.

Vespasian restored the scaena, which had perhaps been injured when the Vitellians stormed the Capitol, and Alexander Severus is said to have intended to restore it again, but of this nothing more is known. Martial mentions this theatre with that of Pompeius as one of the notable structures of the city; and parts of the ludi saeculares of Severus were celebrated in it, as in the games of Augustus. It is found on sundry inscriptions as an indication of location; in Servius incidentally; and in Reg. IX.

Some of the travertine blocks used in the restoration of the pons Cestius in 370 A.D. were taken from this theatre, which may perhaps indicate that the destruction of the building had begun by that time, although Petronius Maximus, prefect of the city, set up statues within it in 42and one inscribed pedestal was found in situ in the eighth century by the compiler of the Einsiedeln Itinerary. Hulsen has shown that the name templum Marcelli still clung to the ruins in 998, that the Fabii or Faffi were in possession of them as early as the middle of the twelfth century, and held them until the end of the thirteenth, when they were succeeded by the Savelli. It is very doubtful, on the other hand, whether the Pierleoni had any connection with the theatre. In 1368 it came into the possession of the Savelli family, and in 17into that of the Orsini. The present Palazzo was built by Baldassare Peruzzi for the Savelli in the early part of the sixteenth century, and stands upon the scaena and a large part of the cavea of the theatre.

The theatre is represented on fragments of the Marble Plan, and stands near the Tiber, on the north-west side of the forum Holitorium. The stage is toward the river, and the main axis runs north- north-east and south-south-west. It was built of travertine for the most part, with opus reticulatum in the foundations and inner walls, covered on the inside-and perhaps partly on the outside-with stucco and marble. A little less than one-third of the semi-circular exterior is still standing in the Via del Teatro di Marcello. It was built with three series of open arcades, one above the other. Between the arches of the lowest arcade are half-columns of the Doric order, and above them is a Doric entablature with triglyphs and an attic, 1.20 metre high, with projections that form the bases of the half- columns of the second Ionic arcade. The entablature above these columns consists of an architrave of three projecting ledges, with a plain frieze and cornice. The original third arcade with Corinthian pilasters has been entirely destroyed and replaced with modern masonry. Thirteen piers, 3 metres wide and 2 thick, with their engaged columns, are still standing, and were till lately buried to about one-third of their height beneath the ground. Immediately within these piers was an ambulatory running round the cavea, from which spur walls were built on radial lines to support the tiers of seats. The construction of the walls, seats, etc., as well as of the exterior, seems to have been quite like that of the theatre of Pompeius and that which was afterwards developed in the Colosseum. The arcades, ambulatories, and chambers between the open walls have now been cleared. The diameter of the theatre was about 150 metres, the scaena was about 80-9o metres long and 20 deep; and at each end of the scaena was an apsidal hall, about 25 by metres, one of which may have been the regia (see above).

According to the Notitia, this theatre had 20500 loca, and if this is interpreted to mean running feet of seats, as is usual at present, it would accommodate from ten to fourteen thousand spectators, but much doubt attaches to these estimates of seating capacity.
 
18 - 23 THEATRUM POMPEI.
The first permanent theatre in Rome, built of stone by Pompeius in his second consulship in 55 B.C., and dedicated in that year according to the common version, when most elaborate games, contests of wild animals, and exhibitions of marvels, were provided. Besides the usual name, theatrum Pompei, it was called theatrum Pompeianum; theatrum marmoreum; theatrum magnum; and sometimes simply theatrum, as it was the only stone theatre in Rome until that of Marcellus was built and always the most important.

The plan of this building Pompeius took from that of Mitylene, and within it he set up many wonderful statues (For the statues of the fourteen nations subdued by Pompeius; see PORTICUS AD NATIONES). To avoid censure for building a permanent theatre, he constructed a temple of VENUS VICTRIX (q.v.) at the top of the central part of the cavea, so that the rows of seats might appear to be the steps leading up to the temple, and dedicated the whole as a temple and not as a theatre. Tertullian speaks of the dedication of theatre and temple as taking place at the same time, but Gellius states that Pompeius, when about to dedicate the temple, was uncertain whether to put consul tertium or tertio in the inscription, and on the advice of Cicero, (quoted from a letter of Tiro), compromised on consul tert. This would seem to indicate that the temple was dedicated in 52, not 53. Whatever may have been true of the dedication, the inscription on the temple, or on the temple and scaena both, was evidently put in place in 52 B.C. From the notice in two calendars it appears that there were shrines or altars to three other deities, Honor Virtus and Felicitas, similarly placed in the theatre, and perhaps a fourth.

Augustus restored the theatre at great expense in 32 B.C., and removed the statue of Pompeius, before which Caesar had been murdered, from the CURIA POMPEI (q.v.) to the theatre itself.  It was burned in 21 A.D. and since there was no surviving member of the family able to restore it, this was undertaken by Tiberius, who set up a bronze statue of Sejanus within the building. Tiberius did not complete the work of restoration, or, according to another statement, did not dedicate it. The completion of the work is ascribed to Caligula or Claudius, and the dedication to the latter, who inscribed the name of Tiberius on the scaena and built a marble arch in his honour (see ARCUS TIBERII) near the theatre.

In 66 A.D. when Tiridates, king of Armenia, visited Rome, Nero is said to have gilded the scaena and the exterior of the theatre for that one occasion, and to have stretched purple awnings over the cavea. In 80 the scaena was burned, but must have been repaired very soon. Under Severus some restoration must have been carried out, for there are two inscriptions of Q. Acilius Fuscus, who was procurator operis theatri Pompeiani in 209-2A.D.. In 247 the theatre was burned again, and probably under Carinus, for it was restored by Diocletian and Maximian. Other restorations are recorded, by Arcadius and Honorius, and finally by Symmachus at the command of Theodoric between 507 and 51Successive restorations probably increased its magnificence, and it is mentioned among the notable monuments of the city by Cassius Dio (xxxix. 38) and Ammianus Marcellinus. Immediately outside the south-east side of the scaena was the PORTICUS POMPEII (q.v.) for the use of the spectators in case of rain. Other references to the theatre in ancient literature convey no additional information.

The theatre was in the campus Martius (Not. Reg. IX), a little north- east of the circus Flaminius, and is represented on the Marble Plan. Its exact site is determined by the remains in opus reticulatum of the foundations of the cavea (the church of S. Maria de Crypta pincta takes its name from one of the vaults), of the temple of Venus Victrix, discovered under the Palazzo Pio, and of the scaena in the Piazza dei Satiri. The Piazza di Grottapinta still preserves the name and the form of part of the theatre. The fagade of the semi-circular cavea consisted of three series of arcades, adorned with columns, the lowest arcade being of the Doric order, the second Ionic, and the third Corinthian. Of the lower arcade traces of twenty-four arches of peperino have been found, in front of which were columns of red granite. The diameter of the theatre was 150-160 metres, and the length of the scaena about 95 metres. According to Pliny the cavea seated 40,000 persons, but this, like other statements of seating capacity in ancient literature, is open to question, and the most careful estimate reduces this number to 10,000.
 
18 - 24 THEATRUM TRAIANI.
A theatre built by Trajan in the campus Martius, and destroyed by Hadrian, who pretended that this was in accordance with Trajan's instructions is more likely to be referring to the AMPHITHEATRUM CASTRENSE.
 
18 - 25 THE(N)SARIUM VETUS IN CAPITOLIO.
see AEDES TENSARUM.
 
18 - 26 THERMAE AGRIPPAE.
The earliest of the great baths of Rome. According to Cassius Dio Agrippa built a hot-air bath in 25 B.C. at the same time as the PANTHEON (q.v.); and at his death in he left to the Roman people, for their free use, a βαλανεῖον. As the AQUA VIRGO (q.v.), which supplied these baths with water, was not completed until B.C., it is probable that the laconicum was the original part of what afterwards became a complete establishment for bathing, which was then regularly called thermae. Agrippa adorned these baths with works of art, among which are mentioned paintings, and the Apoxyomenos of Lysippus, which was set up in front of them. The hot rooms he is said to have finished with fresco on tiles.

The thermae were burned in 80 A.D., but must have been restored by Titus or Domitian, for they are mentioned by Martial as much frequented. Another restoration was carried out by Hadrian. An inscription of 344/5 A.D. recording a restoration by Constantius and Constans of 'termas vetustate labefactas' was found near the church of S. Maria in Monterone close' to the west side of the baths of Agrippa, and therefore probably refers to them. They are mentioned in the Regionary Catalogue (Reg. IX), by Sid. Apollinaris (loc. cit.), and in the sixth century (Greg.. By the seventh century the destruction of the building was well under way, and that its marble was burned into lime is shown by the name Calcararium, applied to the immediate vicinity somewhat later. They are, however, mentioned as Thermae Commodianae in Eins.

The general plan of these thermae is known from a fragment of the Marble Plan found in 1900; from drawings and plans of the sixteenth century when much of the structure was still standing-three in particular, one of Baldassare Peruzzi, a second of Palladio in the Devonshire collection, and a third of S. Peruzzi; and from the meagre results of excavations. From this evidence it appears that the building of Agrippa was oriented of the north and south on the axis of the Pantheon, and covered an area measuring about 100-120 metres north and south and 80-100 east and same west, extending from the modern Via di Tor Argentina on the west to the east side of the Via dei Cestari, and having its southern limit a little north of the Corso Vittorio Emanuele. Just north of the centre of the building was a circular hall about 25 metres in diameter, belonging to a later reconstruction in a period not earlier than Alexander Severus, with the earliest known example of meridian ribs in its dome, the arco della Ciambella, by which name it was known as early as 1505, shown in sketches of the seventeenth century when it was still complete. It is now only partially preserved and is visible behind the houses in the Via dell' Arco della Ciambella. It was probably a sort of general assembly hall, the social centre of the baths. The arrangement of the other rooms is uncertain, but the caldarium was probably directly west of the circular hall. On the west side of the thermae was an artificial pool or STAGNUM (q.v.). The plan is very like that of the larger thermae(the so-called palace) at Treves (Trier), as the restoration by Williams shows.

The original structure of Agrippa was afterwards extended north by Hadrian, and connected with the Pantheon by a series of halls, of which only small sections have been found, except in the case of that directly adjoining the Pantheon. This hall is wrongly called Laconicum by Lanciani, for there are no traces of heating arrangements. Its real purpose is uncertain; Hulsen conjectures that it is to be identified with the library which Julius Africanus erected for the emperor Alexander Severus. But the passage in Oxyrhynchus Papyri  which he cites, .though it is certainly ambiguous, would seem to refer rather to the THERMAE ALEXANDRINAE (NERONIANAE), q.v., the which were close by Greek. From the brickstamps cited by Hulsen, it would seem that the hall itself must also belong to the period of Hadrian, as he maintains; and this is borne out by the character of the frieze and cornice. The hall, now cut through by the Via della Palombella, was rectangular in shape, 45 metres long and wide, with an apse 9 metres in diameter in the north wall. Along each of the longer sides stood four columns of pavonazzetto and red granite. Between the first and second and the third and fourth columns on each side were three niches, two rectangular and one semi-circular. Round the hall ran a remarkably well executed frieze and cornice, some of which is in situ. The walls are 1.75 metre thick. The cross-walls between the north wall of this hall and the drum of the Pantheon date from 126 or later, and as they are not connected with either structure but simply abut against them, it is clear that they were intended to serve as buttresses, perhaps in order that a heavy roof might be put over the hall.

For the thermae, see HJ; and especially Hulsen, Die Thermen des Agrippa, Rome 1910, which contains reproductions of the plans cited above as well as others, and a definite discussion of the whole structure.
 
18 - 27 THERMAE ALEXANDRINAE.
see THERMAE NERONIANAE.
 
18 - 28 THERMAE ANTONINIANAE (CARACALLAE).
The thermae built by Caracalla on the VIA NOVA (q.v.), which he constructed parallel to and on. the right of the via Appia, a little beyond the porta Capena., fixes the date of their dedication as 2A.D. Breval, Remarks on Several Parts of Europe, Ser. I (1726), ii. 259, saw the letters .... ONINI on the exterior, perhaps a fragment of the dedicatory inscription  (217 A.D.). 

The commencement of the building may be fixed by the fact that the brickstamps with Geta's name not yet erased, which have been found in use in its construction, can only belong to the period between February 2and February 212. A quarry mark with the consular date 206 A.D. upon a mass of Greek statuary marble has nothing to do with the date of the commencement of the thermae. A lead pipe found here bears the names of Q. Aiacius Modestus and Q. Aiacius Censorinus, of whom the former is probably identical with one of the quindecimviri sacris faciundis of the ludi saeculares of 204 A.D., who was legatus of upper Germany between 209 and 2A.D. Elagabalus is said to have added porticoes which were finished by Alexander Severus; but the truth of the statement is doubtful, though it has generally been taken to refer to the peribolus. For a catalogue of the works of art which the baths contained about the middle of the third century, cf. Nicole, Un Catalogue d'ceuvres d'art conserves a Rome a l'epoque imperiale. Some porticoes connected with the baths were destroyed or damaged by fire, and repaired under Aurelian.

A brick-stamp of the time of Constans or Constantius (not found in situ) gives some evidence of activity about the middle of the fourth century, while we have dedicatory inscriptions upon the bases of statues set up by the praefectus urbi to Victoria and to the victorious emperors Valentinian and Valens towards the end of it.

In the fifth century the baths are named among the marvels of Rome, but their use must have been rendered impossible when the aqueducts were cut by the Goths in 537 A.D.

The ruins were less affected than those of many other buildings by the devastations of the Middle Ages, though evidence has been found here too of the harm wrought by the earthquake of 847, (a column in the xystus resting on a mass of debris; see BASILICA AEMILIA). The name occurs in Eins. and under various forms right through the Middle Ages. Discovery and destruction went hand in hand under Paul III. The colossal group of the Farnese Bull, and the large statues of Hercules and Flora which were found in his pontificate, are now all in the Museum at Naples. After the important studies of sixteenth century architects, no great progress was made until the publication of Blouet's Restauration des thermes d'Antonin Caracalla, which gives the results of Velo's excavations. Iwanoff studied the ruins in 1847-49, but his results were only published in 1898, with text by Hulsen. Important excavations have been made since in the main building, and, in 1901 and 191in its subterranean service and drainage passages, in the underground corridors which connected it with the peribolus, and in parts of the latter.

The plan of the thermae of Caracalla is derived, with modifications, from the thermae of Trajan; they consist of a large central building containing the baths proper, surrounded by a garden, which in turn is enclosed by a rectangular peribolus, containing porticoes, rooms for recreation, etc. The via Nova ran below the level of this garden, which was in large measure artificially raised, only the south and south-east porticoes having been cut out of the hillside. It was therefore approached by flights of steps; between them were small rooms in two stories which served as shops and offices. These ran along the front and the sides, almost as far as the back of the central building, where they were succeeded by two huge exedrae, in each of which were three main rooms-- an octagonal nymphaeum (?) (which has great importance in the history of the development of the dome, providing the earliest extant examples of spherical pendentives of windows in the drum and of half-domed recesses under them), a rectangular room open towards the garden, and another room, previously thought to have been a piscina, but recently found to have been heated by hypocausts. Behind these rooms was an arcade following the curve of the exedra; and in front of each exedra was a portico which gave on to the garden, and was continued along the south-west side as well.

We have now reached the posterior angles of the peribolus; in each of them is a staircase (not a part of the original construction) followed by a large rectangular hall open towards the garden, which from its internal arrangements must be a library. On three sides it is surrounded by low steps, leading up to niches, in which the manuscripts were kept. Two capitals, with figures of Serapis and Harpocrates, now in S. Maria in Trastevere, came from here. The centre of the south-west side is occupied by rows of seats, with a curve at each end. Here was obviously a stadium; but the north-east side was left open, so that spectators in the garden could see what was going on. Behind the seats and at a higher level were the large reservoirs of the thermae, consisting of sixty-four vaulted chambers in two stories and in two rows. They were supplied by a branch of the AQUA MARCIA, the Antoniniana Iovia (q.v.), which crossed the via Appia on the so-called ARCH OF DRUSUS (q.v.).

The central block, to which we now turn, had four entrances: the two central ones led into the covered halls (from which the apodyteria or dressing-rooms were reached) at each end of the frigidarium. This, despite all that has been said to the contrary, was probably open to the air, like the frigidarium of the thermae of Diocletian. The famous passage (Hist. Aug. Carac. 9. as to the ' cella solearis,' which most writers have identified with the frigidarium (while others have referred it to the caldarium), is relegated by Domaszewski to the list of the writer's inventions. Thus solearis is an intentional corruption of soliaris, and the sentence : namet ex aere vel cypro cancelli superpositi esse dicuntur, quibus cameratio tota concreditaest, is added by the author as an explanation of the word. As a matter of fact, a cella soliaris (or cum soliis) is mentioned thrice in North Africa- at Thuburnica, Madauros, and Thuburbo Maius and appears to mean a hall in which were large basins for private hot baths. In some cases solium is used for the room itself. The north-east (external) wall was elaborately decorated with small niches surmounted by pediments and enclosed by ranges of columns carrying architraves, one above the other-the first case of a form of embellishment, which is also found in the frigidarium of the thermae of Diocletian. On the south-west it opened on to the great central hall, which has so long been wrongly known as the tepidarium, though no arrangements for heating it are to be found; and it has so many openings that it would be impossible to keep up even a moderate temperature in it. This great hall, which measures 183 by 79 feet, was covered with an intersecting barrel vault, and was adorned with eight granite columns, one of which was still standing there until 1561-5, when it was removed to Florence by Cosimo I, and now stands in the Piazza della Trinita.

The other two entrances at each end of the central block led into two halls which gave directly on to the two palaestrae, one at each end of the longer axis of the building. These were open courts surrounded by a colonnade on three sides with a row of three rooms opening towards the fourth side. On the axis of the central hall and opening out of it are two apsidal recesses, each of which contained a large mosaic pavement representing athletes, and dating probably from the fourth century. They were discovered in 1824, and placed in the Lateran museum, where they have been somewhat arbitrarily re-arranged.

Two low openings on the minor axis of the central hall lead into a small rectangular room, probably the tepidarium, which serves as the vestibule to the great circular caldarium in the centre of the south-west side. Its lofty dome was 35 metres in diameter, and was supported by eight huge pillars, two of which are still standing. These were united by two tiers of arches. Between the pillars on each side of the entrance hot baths have been inserted at a later date, and were supplied by cisterns added on each side of the tepidarium. Other private baths were accessible from the palaestrae or were situated in the upper story. The central block was completed by four rooms on the south-west side on each side of the caldarium, which served for meeting places, recitations, etc.

The planning of the subterranean portion of the baths is no less admirable than that of the superstructure. It was studied in the excavations of 1901 and 1912, but no comprehensive plan is as yet available. An elaborate system of tiewalls was introduced to strengthen the foundations. Under the whole of the main building run passages at two levels, the upper for service, communication being by means of shafts, the lower for drainage. The main discharge is on the north-west side from a drain running the whole length of the north-east front, and receiving the water from the frigidarium, which had two outlets in the centre. Another important passage ran beneath the main axis of the building. These passages are approached from open courtyards, which also served as light wells, on each side of the tepidarium.

Along the south-west side of the building run far larger and more extensive vaulted passages which communicated with the interesting and complicated substructures of the two exedrae of the peribolus. In one part of them a mill was established at a later date, when the baths lost part of their importance; in another was placed a Mithraeum, the largest known in Rome, which gives us interesting information as to the details of the cult.
 
18 - 29 THERMAE AURELIANAE.
A bathing establishment for use in winter which Aurelian planned to build on the right bank of the Tiber, but apparently did not. Cf. Platner in  CP 1917, 195, as against HJ 630 (who translates it ' cold baths '), citing id. Gord. 32. 7 for thermae aestivae contrasted with thermae hiemales-the reason being in his opinion that the water was not cold enough to be pleasant for use in summer, and therefore it was thought better to warm it for use in winter. Domaszewski regards the whole story as a mere fabrication.
 
18 - 30 THERMAE CLEANDRI.
see THERMAE COMMODIANAE.
 
18 - 31 THERMAE COMMODIANAE.
Baths built by Cleander, a favourite of Commodus, in Region I, probably south or south-east of those built later by Caracalla.  Whether these thermae were called γυμνάσιον or not, depends on the reading accepted in Herod.. The thermae Commodianae mentioned in Eins. are the THERMAE AGRIPPAE. No trace of the real thermae Commodianae has been found.
 
18 - 32 THERMAE CONSTANTINIANAE.
The last of the great baths of Rome, built by Constantine on the Quirinal, probably before 315. They suffered greatly from fire and earthquake and were restored in 443 by the city prefect Petronius Perpenna Magnus Quadratianus, at which time it is probable that the colossal statues of the Dioscuri and horses, now in the Piazza del Quirinale, were set up within the thermae , but they are mentioned in Eins..

They were built in the irregular space between the vicus Longus, the Alta Semita, the clivus Salutis and the vicus laci Fundani, and as this was on a side-hill, it was necessary to make an artificial level, beneath which the ruins of houses of the second, third and fourth centuries have been found. Because of these peculiar conditions these thermae differed in plan from all others in the city. Enough of the structure was standing at the beginning of the sixteenth century to permit of plans and drawings by the architects of that period, and these are the chief sources of our knowledge of the building. The remains were almost entirely destroyed in 1605-162when the Palazzo Rospigliosi was built, but some traces were found a century later.

The baths were oriented north and south with one principal entrance in the middle of the north side. As the main structure occupied all the space between the streets on the east and west, the ordinary peribolus was replaced by an enclosure that extended across the front and was bounded on the north by a curved line, an area now occupied by the Palazzo della Consulta. The other principal entrance was on the west side, where a magnificent flight of steps led down from the top of the hill to the campus Martius. The frigidarium seems to have had its longer axis north and south instead of east and west, and behind it were tepidarium and caldarium both circular in shape. Because of the comparative narrowness of the building, the ordinary arrangement of the anterooms on each side of the caldarium was not carried out.

Some notable works of art have been found on the site of these thermae, among them the bronze statues of boxer and athlete now in the Museo delle Terme; two statues of Constantine, one in the pronaos of the Lateran, and the other in the Piazza del Campidoglio with a statue of his son Constans; and some frescoes, till lately in the Palazzo Rospigliosi and now in the Museo delle Terme, which belong to an earlier building, perhaps the DOMUS CLAUDIORUM.
 
18 - 33 THERMAE DECIANAE.
Built by the Emperor Decius in 252 A.D. on the Aventine.

A partial plan of these thermae drawn by Palladio about 1600 was found by Lanciani in the Devonshire collection, on which can be traced the outlines of the central hall, the beginning of the caldarium, and the dressing and lounging rooms on the sides, in the usual manner of the Roman baths. This main part seems to have measured about 70 by 35 metres, which shows that the whole complex of buildings was very large.

The site of the thermae was between the present churches of S. Alessio and S. Prisca, in the Vigna Torlonia, and Palladio's plan corresponds with the remains of foundation walls still existing under and around the casino of the vigna. Excavations on this site since the seventeenth century have resulted in the discovery of large halls with mosaic pavements and painted marble and stucco decoration, of inscribed pedestals of statues erected during the fourth century by prefects of the city; and of works of art such as the infant Hercules in basalt and the relief of Endymion now in the Capitoline Museum.
 
18 - 34 THERMAE DIOCLETIANI.
The baths erected by Diocletian on the high ground to the north-east of the Viminal. The dedicatory inscription. Latin. Maximian's return to Rome took place in the autumn of 298; while the abdication of Diocletian and Maximian in favour of Constantius (Chlorus) and (Galerius) Maximianus took place on Ist May, 305, and Constantius died on 25th July, 306. The inscription therefore belongs to the period between the two latter dates, and the baths took between seven and eight years to complete. It is noteworthy that the bricks used belong entirely to the period of Diocletian, no older material having been employed. The exterior, (like that of the thermae of Caracalla and of the curia), was faced with white stucco in imitation of construction in blocks of white marble. The date given by Hier. of (302 A.D.), is therefore incorrect. The baths are also mentioned in Not., where we are told that the QUADRIGAE PISONIS (q.v.) were among the buildings removed to make way for the baths. We may add a monument of an undetermined period, decorated with sculptures, including a relief representing the temple of Quirinus, and various private houses, including that of CORNELIA L. F. VOLUSI SATURNINI (q.v.); while the north-eastern portion of the vicus Longus was suppressed, and the Alta Semita and the Vicus Collis Viminalis connected by a new cross street.

The statement in Hist. Aug.: usus autem sum praecipue libris ex bibliothecaUlpia, aetate mea thermis Diocletiani, is a pure invention according to v. Domaszewski. If it is true that these thermae could accommodate 3000 people in marble seats, almost double the number of bathers that found room in those of Caracalla, then, inasmuch as the area is about the same, the space must have been more economically used. They are also mentioned by Schol.. 1131 (the date of which is uncertain) refers apparently to a restoration, saying 'thermas Diocletianas a veteribusprincipibus institutas omni cultu ... restituit.' The destruction of the aqueducts in the Gothic wars naturally rendered them unusable; but they are mentioned as in the fourth ecclesiastical region in Regest.; and the name in thermis Diocletianis was applied to the church of S. Cyriacus right through the Middle Ages, while in the Mirabilia and in Magister Gregorius the building is known as the Palatium Diocletiani.

The thermae of Diocletian occupied about the same area as those of Caracalla, (a rectangle of about 356 by 3metres, or about 281 acres), and closely resemble them in plan. The central hall of the main building, which measured 280 by 160 metres, wrongly known as the tepidarium until quite recently, is derived, as Rivoira points out, from that of the thermae of Titus and of Trajan, and is very similar to that of the baths of Caracalla; while from it is derived the plan of the Basilica of Constantine. Its excellent preservation is due to its conversion into the church of S. Maria degli Angeli by Michelangelo; though there is not sufficient evidence to allow us to attribute to him, instead of to Vanvitelli, the new apse on the north-east side. It has an intersecting vault divided into three bays; the four columns of grey granite on each side do not support the vault, but are purely ornamental. The four smaller rooms at the angles may havc served for cold baths, as there is no trace of heating; while between them, on the minor axis, there was access to the frigidarium on the north-east and to the circular tepidarium, (now the vestibule of the church), and the rectangular caldarium, which projected south- westwards, and though extant in the sixteenth century is now destroyed.

On the major axis, on the south-west, there was an approach at each end through two rectangular halls to the palaestrae, one at each end of the main block on each side of the frigidarium, a hall containing a huge shallow bathing pool, which was open to the air; its north wall, elaborately decorated with niches, is still in great part preserved. On each side of the caldarium were the apodyteria or dressing rooms, and other halls, which served for private baths, etc., as well as for conversation, recitations of poets, rhetoricians, etc., and completed the rectangular central block. This was surrounded by a garden, which was enclosed by an outer peribolus. Around this were small rectangular halls and semicircular exedrae, which were also used as reading and lecture rooms, gymnasia and lounging rooms.

In the centre of the south-west side was a very large exedra, which was doubtless provided with seats and served as a theatre (like the corresponding exedrae in the thermae of Trajan and Caracalla).

The actual enclosure wall was preserved until modern days. The Via Nazionale was driven through it in 1867, and only the line of its curve is still shown by the buildings of the Piazza dell' Esedra dei Termini, the corrupt form in which the name of the thermae still lingers on. At the west and south angles of the peribolus are two circular halls, one of which is especially well preserved, owing to its conversion into the church of S. Bernardo in 1598.

The whole of the external brick facing was covered with plaster, in imitation of construction in blocks of white marble with draughted joints: this was also done in the thermae of Caracalla, the basilica of Constantine, etc.

The reservoir by which the baths were supplied was fed by the aqua Marcia, the volume of which was increased by Diocletian. It lay outside the peribolus on the south side; and, being in the angle between the baths and the vicus Collis Viminalis, it was trapezoidal in shape, 91 metres in length, with an average width of metres. The last remains of it above ground were not destroyed until 1876.

For the excavations and demolitions of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries and the condition of the ruins at that period. The ruins of the caldarium and the southern angle of the central block were in large measure removed by Sixtus V.

For the thermae in general, see Sebastianus de Oya, 1558.
 
18 - 35 THERMAE DOMITII.
baths built by Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, the father of Nero, on the Sacra via (Sen. Contr. ix. 4. 18: thermas prospicientes viam sacram), probably adjacent to his house (see DOMUS DOMITIANA).
 
18 - 36 THERMAE ETRUSCI.
the baths of Claudius Etruscus, described in detail by Statius (Silv. i. 5) and Martial (vi. 4. As they were fed by both the aqua Virgo and Marcia, these baths were probably on the north-eastern part of the Quirinal or the south end of the Pincian 
 
18 - 37 THERMAE GORDIANI.
see Hist. Aug. Gord. 32. 7
 
18 - 38 THERMAE HELENAE.
Baths situated on the eastern part of the Caelian hill, between the amphitheatrum Castrense and the arcus Neroniani of the aqua Claudia, and are now bounded by the Vie di S. Croce in Gerusalemme and Eleniana. They are almost entirely destroyed. They are commonly ascribed to Helena, the mother of Constantine, on the evidence of an inscription found among the meagre ruins on this site. This inscription of course records only a restoration, and there is no actual occurrence of the name thermae Helenae. In 1907 a fragmentary inscription was discovered in the cloister of S. Croce in Gerusalemme which contained a list of distinguished men of the time of Maximian, with certain sums opposite their names, and it has been conjectured that this may be a list of men who made voluntary contributions to construct the baths which Helena afterwards restored. In the sixteenth century much more of the building was standing, and we have plans then drawn by Palladio and by Antonio da Sangallo the younger. On the north-east side of the thermae are the ruins of a piscina, fed probably by the aqua Alexandrina, with vaulted chambers, in one of which was a church during the Middle Ages with painted walls.
 
18 - 39 THERMAE MAXENTII.
Baths which Maxentius is said to have constructed on the Palatine. 
 
18 - 40 THERMAE NERONIANAE.
The second public bathing establishment in Rome, built by Nero near the Pantheon. According to the Chronica they were erected in 64 A.D., but if they are to be identified with Nero's GYMNASIUM (q.v.), which was built in 62, their construction also must be assigned to that year (HJ 590). They were among the notable monuments of the cit, and evidently became a very popular resort.

A hypocaust was found in the courtyard of Palazzo Madama in 1871 with the brick-stamps  (123 A.D.) ; and in 1907 in another hypocaust were found 164 (Severus), 364 (Hadrian), 371 b (Severus), 404 (Severus) on the site of S. Salvatore in Thermis. Pipes were found in the walls of the time of Nero at the corner between the Piazza and the Salita dei Crescenzi.

In 227 these thermae were rebuilt by Alexander Severus and thenceforth called officially thermae Alexandrinae, although there are indications of the survival of the original name. A coin of Alexander Severus probably represents them. They were wrongly called templum Alexandrini in 946, but still retained their correct name in 998.

These baths occupied a rectangular area extending from the north-west corner of the Pantheon to the stadium of Domitian (Piazza Navona), an area of about 190 by 120 metres, and fronted north. Nothing now remains above ground except portions of walls built into the Palazzo Madama, but in the sixteenth century the foundations of the caldarium were still visible, extending out from the middle of the south side. The concrete, wherever visible, belongs to the time of Nero. The frigidarium was in the middle of the north side, the tepidarium between it and the caldarium; there were large colonnaded courts on the east and west sides of the central hall, and four dressing and lounging rooms on each side of the caldarium. Excavations made at various times have brought to light architectural remains of great beauty, among them four columns of red granite, two of which were used by Alexander VII in 1666 to restore the left corner of the pronaos of the Pantheon-white marble capitals, and fragments of columns of porphyry, pavonazzetto and grey granite, as well as an enormous basin for a fountain 6.70 metres in diameter, cut from a single block of red granite, with pieces of several others; and for the mediaeval churches of S. Andrea de Fordivoliis, (near S. Luigi dei Francesi), S. Iacobus de Thermis and S. Salvator de Thermis.
 
18 - 41 THERMAE NOVATI.
Baths near S. Pudenziana which, although probably ancient, are mentioned only in the Acta S. Praxedis. Near them were probably the thermae Timothei, and to them may have belonged the fragment of an inscription found in S. Pudenziana.
 
18 - 42 THERMAE SEPTIMIANAE.
Baths built by Septimius Severus near the PORTA SEPTIMIANA (q.v.); cf. also BALNEAE SEVERI. They are only mentioned in Hist. Aug.
 
18 - 43 THERMAE SEVERIANAE Region 1.
Baths built by Septimius Severus in Region I, which were standing in the fourth century, but are not mentioned afterwards. They were probably south of the baths of Caracalla.
 
18 - 44 THERMAE SEVERIANAE Region .
In Region XIV; see THERMAE SEPTIMIANAE, BALNEAE SEVERI.
 
18 - 45 THERMAE SURANAE.
Baths on the Aventine in Region XIII, which were built by Licinius Sura, the fellow-countryman and friend of Trajan , or by Trajan himself and dedicated in the name of his friend. This establishment is represented on fragments of the Marble Plan, and its site is thereby identified with that of the modern restaurant of the Castello dei Cesari, just north of S. Prisca, where some remains have been found and a fragmentary inscription recording the restoration of a cella tepidaria by Caecina Decius Acinatius Albinus, praefectus urbi in 4A.D.. A previous restoration by the third Gordian is proved by the discovery in 1920 in S. Sabina of part of a marble block, probably the architrave over a door, with a fragmentary inscription in which this restoration of the text seems justified, especially when compared with a passage from Hist. Aug. Latin. This Sura had a house on the Aventine, presumably close to the thermae, or perhaps converted into them by Trajan. The latter are not mentioned after the fourth century.
 
18 - 46 THERMAE TIMOTHEI.
see THERMAE NOVATI
 
18 - 47 THERMAE TITI.
Built by Titus in great haste at the time of the dedication of the Colosseum, and opened with magnificent games. These baths were in Region III(Not.), near the Colosseum and within the precinct of Nero's DOMUS AUREA (q.v.), but no actual buildings of the domus seem to have been removed to make room for them. In 238 A.D. some restoration was evidently contemplated, and incidental references to them occur in Martial and in later inscriptions.

Early in the sixteenth century Julius II brought to the Vatican a large granite basin, which had been seen on the site of these thermae in 1450; it was buried in 1565 by Pius IV, but dug up again by Paul V, and still stands in the Cortile di Belvedere. Later on, a basin of porphyry was found here and given by Ascanio Colonna to Julius III. It is now in the Sala Rotonda of the Vatican. In the same century Palladio made a plan of the ruins then existing. These ruins were afterwards almost entirely destroyed, although some meagre remains have recently been found, and until 1895 the name was generally applied to the thermae of Trajan, though the truth was detected by De Romanis and Piale in the 'twenties of last century (see DOMUS AUREA). The thermae were situated just west of the later thermae Traianae on the edge of the slope overhanging the Colosseum, with the same orientation as the domus Aurea, and occupied a nearly rectangular area, about 105 by 120 metres. The facade and principal entrance were on the north side. On the south side a wide flight of steps led down to the paved area around the Colosseum, metres below, where there are traces of a porticus which may have belonged to the approach to the thermae or have surrounded a large part of the Colosseum area. The arrangement of apartments seems to have been somewhat like that of the THERMAE NERONIANAE (q.v.), with the main hall (the earliest example) in the centre of the north side flanked by colonnaded courts, and a caldarium projecting out from the south side. 
 
18 - 48 THERMAE TRAIANI.
Built for Trajan by the Greek architect Apollodorus. These baths were immediately north-cast of the thermae Titi, and in the chronicle of S. Jerome the thermae Titianae et Traianae are assigned to the reign of Domitian, which may perhaps indicate that the latter were planned by that emperor. Because of this statement these baths are mentioned in early church writings as thermae Domitianae. In Trajan's time they were used by women; little images (sigillaria) were exposed for sale in the porticus of the thermae in the last days of the Saturnalia, (which were sometimes called Sigillaria from this practice; see SIGILLARIA); they are mentioned incidentally in inscriptions; and in the fourth or fifth century they were adorned with statues by Iulius Felix Campanianus, prefect of the city. The correct name was attached to the gradually diminishing ruins until about the sixteenth century, when it was displaced by the incorrect name, thermae Titianae.

Part of these baths is represented on a fragment of the Marble Plan, and in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries drawings and plans were made of the existing ruins-the most important being those in the Destailleur collection in Berlin. By the end of the eighteenth century most of these ruins had been destroyed, and the principal remains now visible belong to the exedrae at the north-east and south-west corners of the east palestra. These baths were in Region III (Not.), on the Esquiline, just south-east of the present church of S. Pietro in Vincoli. They were within the precinct of the domus Aurea, a considerable part of which was destroyed or buried beneath them. From information at hand it is possible to reconstruct their plan in its main features. These thermae marked an intermediate stage between the earlier and later type, in that the central complex of buildings was partly surrounded, on the east, west, and south sides, by a peribolus which contained reading rooms, gymnasia, and exedrae at the four corners. On the north side there was no enclosure, but the facade of the building with the main entrance in the middle. The frigidarium, central hall, tepidarium, and caldarium were arranged in the usual order from north to south in the centre of the main structure, with apodyteria or dressing-rooms, open courts or palaestrae surrounded with colonnades in the middle of the east and west sides, and the usual number of small baths and rooms for various purposes. From the middle of the peribolus on the south side, a very large exedra projected outward which served as a theatre. This exedra was built over part of the domus Aurea, and in order to provide sufficiently strong foundations for the cavea of the theatre, additional walls were built through the chambers of the domus, some corresponding with the walls of these chambers, and others with the orientation of the baths themselves. The axis of the domus runs north and south, while that of the thermae runs north-east and south-west at an angle of 30 degrees from the meridian. The extreme measurements of the baths are 340 metres in width and 330 in depth, or, excluding the exedral projections, 280 by 2metres.

Presumably Trajan adorned his baths with works of art, and many traces have been found in this precinct and its immediate vicinity, but their exact provenience is difficult to ascertain. The Laokoon group was found in 1506 in a hall between the thermae and the Sette Sale, (probably in the domus Aurea, which in Pliny's time was called the house of Titus; see DOMUS TITI). It may have been set up in the thermae by Trajan, but it seems far more likely that it was actually found in the domus Aurea (See AD TAURUM).
 
18 - 49 TIBERINUS.
A shrine of the river-god on the insula Tiberina. The day of dedication was probably 8th December, when the festival was celebrated. Its exact location is not known, nor anything of its history. See Carcopino, Virgile et les Origines d'Ostie, 561 sqq., for a theory that Thybris was the original river-god, and his identification with Volcanus.1
 
18 - 50 TIBURTIUS COLLIS.
A name which appears to have been given at a late date to the Quirinal hill, and occurs only in an emended passage in Lydus. Like PRAENESTIUS COLLIS (q.v.) the name is derived from that of a gate in the Aurelian wall, and was probably the invention of some antiquarian.
 
18 - 51 TIBERIS.
the most important river of Central Italy. The importance of the site of the Palatine and of Rome is mainly due to its command of the crossing of the Tiber just below the island (see PONS SUBLICIUS), which must be of great antiquity, and was probably the only one in the whole lower course of the river.

The derivation of the name is uncertain, but its antiquity is vouched for by its appearance in the augural books. It was also known as Albula, though it is incorrect to connect the name with albus. Hiilsen connects it with the Ligurian root ALB- or ALP-, meaning 'mountain,' so that Albula would mean the mountain stream. Vergil calls it caeruleus, a colour which it not infrequently acquires when the blue sky is reflected in it; but its general and more approproate epithet is flavus.

It is a turbulent river and much subject to floods, which have always been a source of great danger to the city. No less than 132 inundations have been recorded. Julius Caesar had a scheme for cutting a new channel a Ponte Mulvio secundum montes Vaticanos; see CAMPUS VATICANUS.

The cura Tiberis under the republic was in the hands of the censors. Protecting walls were built at least as early as the second century B.C. (see CLOACA MAXIMA), and we have nineteen of the terminal stones erected by P. Servilius Isauricus and M. Valerius Messalla in 54 B.C.. They extend from the Pons Mulvius, at the second mile of the via Flaminia, downstream as far as the Almo on the left bank, while one was seen in the seventeenth century near S. Passera (opposite S. Paolo) on the right bank. On the other hand, it was the praetor urbanus who, a little earlier (the inscriptions are attributed to the time of Sulla), traced the boundary line between public and private property at Ostia..

The next termination was carried out by the consuls of 8 B.C., C. Asinius Gallus and C. Marcius Censorinus, and twenty of these cippi remain, and a third by Augustus himself in the following year, twenty-two cippi remaining. In this termination the distance in a straight line r(ecta) r(egione) to the next cippus is given in feet, on the front, back or side (see RIPA VEIENTANA).

In A.D. a great inundation occurred, and the cura riparum was instituted by Tiberius. The curatores, who were five in number, replaced several of the earlier cippi by new ones, adding to the original inscription the words curatoresriparum qui primi fuerunt ex senatus consulto restituerunt. Their authority extended as far as Ostia, where one of their cippi and one of 24-37 A.D. have been found. A little later on other curatores restored a part of the bank near the pons Cestius, and set up other cippi, three of which remain (before 24 A.D.). From the reign of Claudius we have a cippus of the curatores who 'ripam cippis positis terminaverunt a Trigario ad pontem Agrippae', while under Vespasian and afterwards only a single curator is named, it being doubtful whether one functioned for the whole collegium, or whether henceforth there was only a single curator (73-74 A.D.). We have other cippi under Trajan (101 and 104 A.D.), Hadrian (121 A.D.), Antoninus Pius (161 A.D.), Septimius Severus, (197 - 198). None of these later groups is very large; and then there is a gap till Diocletian (286-305 A.D.).

See PONS AELIUS for the regulation of the channel there.
 
18 - 52 TIFATA CURIA.
A grove of holm oaks, perhaps on the Quirinal, named after M. Curius Dentatus, to whom a house and fifty iugera of land in the immediate neighbourhood were said to have been given by the senate after his victory over the Samnites (cf. TIFATA MANCINA).
 
18 - 53 TIFATA MANCINA.
A grove of holy oaks in an unknown part of the city, and named after an unknown Mancinus.
 
18 - 54 TIGILLUM SORORIUM.
A wooden crossbar supported by two vertical posts beneath which tradition said the surviving Horatius was compelled to pass in expiation of the murder of his sister. It stood ad compitum, perhaps on the VICUS CUPRIUS (q.v.), but in any case somewhere on the south-west slope of the Oppius. It is mentioned last in the fourth century (Not. Reg. IV). Various explanations of this yoke have been suggested, among them that it represented a gate in the enclosure of the original Esquiline village, or a gate through which the army passed for purification on returning from battle, or a gate in the Septimontium, sacred to Ianus Quirinus, or a true ianus or street gate which, with the two adjacent altars of Ianus Curiatius and Iuno Sororia, was connected with the common cult of Janus and Juno at the beginning of the month, or that it was simply a fetish.
 
18 - 55 DIVUS TITUS, AEDES.
see TEMPLUM DIVORUM.
 
18 - 56 DIVUS TRAIANUS, TEMPLUM.
see FORUM TRAIANUM.
 
18 - 57 AD TO(N)SORES.
A district or street near the temple of FLORA and the north end of the circus Maximus, which is mentioned only in one inscription, a slave's collar.  We also find in a catalogue of artisans of the end of the fourth century a ' tonsor ad circum.'.
 
18 - 58 TRAIANENSES.
Evidently the inhabitants of some district in which some one of Trajan's great buildings stood, as the thermae or forum, or perhaps the arcus Traiani, if we may suppose that the names are arranged in the order of the regions to which they belong.
 
18 - 59 A TRANSTIBERIM.
An indication of locality found on a sepulchral inscription of the empire, the only instance known of Transtiberis as a noun.
 
18 - 60 AD TRES FORTUNAS.
see FORTUNAE TRES, AEDES.
 
18 - 61 AD TRES SILANOS.
A local designation occurring on an inscription found at Grotta Ferrata but evidently belonging to Rome. Silanus was one kind of a fountain, and this inscription refers to a group of three such fountains in Region VII.
 
18 - 62 TRIA FATA.
Statues of the three Fates on the north side of the Rostra, close to the Curia. They were said to have been set up by Tarquinius Priscus, and two of them were restored in the Augustan period. When the name, tria Fata, first came into use is not known, but its first occurrence is in 250 A.D., where it means that part of the forum about the curia. This usage continued and is found in several later documents.
 
18 - 63 TRIBUNAL AURELIUM.
A tribunal, or platform, evidently named after some Aurelius, in the forum, which is mentioned four times by Cicero in connection with a levy of slaves in 58 B.C..

In two other passages Cicero speaks of gradus Aurelii, once in connection with the trial of C. Iunius in 74 B.C., and again in 59 B.C.. These gradus, being new (novi), were probably built by M. Aurelius Cotta, consul in that year of (7, and as they were occupied by those in attendance upon the jury trials, gradus and tribunal probably belonged together. Either the terms were used without distinction, or the gradus led up to the tribunal. These tribunalia were usually temporary structures of wood: this one, or at least the gradus, was certainly of stone. There is no indication of its site, and since it is not mentioned after the time of Cicero, it was probably removed during the changes carried out by Caesar and Augustus.
 
18 - 64 TRIBUNAL PRAETORIS.
The judgment seat of the praetor, always apparently a movable wooden platform, which stood originally on the comitium. It was transferred to the forum at some later date, perhaps about the middle of the second century B.C., and set up sometimes at least near the PUTEAL LIBONIS (q.v.) and the arcus Fabianus.

In the travertine pavement of the Augustan age in front of the column of Phocas are the matrices of the bronze letters, 30 centimetres high, of an inscription-L. Naevius L. f. Surdinus pr. This is the same inscription that is found on the back of the archaistic relief of Mettius Curtius. Naevius was triumvir monetalis in 23 B.C., and the inscriptions seem to indicate that he constructed a praetor's tribunal at this point in the forum, as well as repairing it (see FORUM ROMANUM), in connection with Augustus' rebuilding of the rostra. It is possible that this was the usual place for the praetor's seat after it had been moved from the comitium. The structure of Naevius was not monumental, but the traditional wooden platform may have been provided with a stone foundation, or an enclosure wall on which the archaistic relief was placed. But the significance of the inscription has not been fully appreciated, and we must refer to it a general repairing of the whole Forum.
 
18 - 65 TRIBUNAL TRAIANI.
See EQUUS DOMITIANI.
 
18 - 66 TRIBUNAL VESPASIANI TITI DOMITIANI.
A tribunal or platform erected in honour of these three emperors in Capitolio. It probably supported statues of the emperors, and to it the diplomata were affixed.
 
18 - 67 TRIGARIUM.
An open space where horses were exercised, originally no doubt in teams of three, trigae. It was in the north-west part of the campus Martius, between the stadium of Domitian and the Tiber. 
 
18 - 68 TROPAEA GERMANICI.
Trophies erected in honour of Germanicus, of which nothing is known except that they stood on the Capitol, near the temple of Fides.
 
18 - 69 TROPAEA MARII.
Monuments erected by Marius to commemorate his victories over Jugurtha and over the Cimbri and Teutones, which were removed by Sulla, and afterwards restored by Caesar when aedile. According to Plutarch. Caesar set up these trophies on the Capitol, and it is probable, although not certain, that they stood there originally. These tropaea have disappeared entirely, and are not to be confused with the so-called Trofei di Mario, the marble statues now standing on the balustrade of the Piazza del Campidoglio which were brought here in 1590 from the NYMPHAEUM (q.v.) in the Piazza di Vittorio Emanuele.

Besides these tropaea of the Capitol, there was another set in Rome, according to Valerius Maximus. This second set is evidently referred to in the last two passages, but neither the site of the ara Febris nor that of the domus Aeliorum is known. The temple of HONOS ET VIRTUS (q.v.), built by Marius from the spoils taken from the Cimbri and Teutones, is sometimes called monumentum Marii, and has been identified with the monumenta Mariana of Valerius Maximus, but this is very improbable.
 
18 - 70 TROPAEA NERONIS.
Trophies erected by Nero in 62 A.D., on the Capitol to commemorate victories over the Parthians.
 
18 - 71 TUGURIUM FAUSTULI.
see CASA ROMULI.
 
18 - 72 TULLIANUM.
see CARCER.
 
18 - 73 TUMULUS IULIAE.
The tomb of Julia, daughter of Caesar and wife of Pompeius, in the campus Martius. The funeral pyre of Caesar was erected near this tumulus, and it was in this tomb that he himself was probably buried. It is possible also that it is the same tomb referred to in Livy as the burial place of Drusus in C. Iulii tumulo, who, however, according to better authorities, was buried in the MAUSOLEUM AUGUSTI (q.v.). In other words it was the tomb of the gens Iulia. On the other hand, the tumulus Iuliorum, in which Poppaea's body was placed is generally thought to be the Mausoleum Augusti. It is possible that this tomb is indicated by the letters vLI on fragment 72 of the Marble Plan. If so, its location just east of the thermae Agrippae, between it and the Villa Publica, and close to the SEPULCRUM AGRIPPAE (q.v.), west of the Via del Gesu, would be very probable.
 
18 - 74 TUMULUS MAECENATIS.
See SEPULCRUM HORATII.
 
18 - 75 TUMULUS OCTAVIORUM.
A tomb of the Octavii, of unknown location, and mentioned only once as the burial place of L. Antonius in 25 A.D.
 
18 - 76 TURRIS MAECENATIANA.
The tower from which Nero is said to have witnessed the burning of Rome. It probably stood in the HORTI MAECENATIS (q.v.) on the Esquiline, and may be referred to by Horace.
 
18 - 77 TURRIS MAMILIA.
A tower in the Subura on which the inhabitants of that region, Suburanenses, fastened the tail of the horse which was sacrificed at the October festival in case they were successful in their annual contest with the Sacravienses, a contest that dated from the period in the city's development before that marked by the so-called Servian wall. If another statement by Fcstus is true, the construction of this tower is perhaps to be connected with the settlement of the Mamilii, the principal family of Tusculum, in this part of the city. The tower was standing in the imperial period, but is not mentioned in the Regionary Catalogue.
 
18 - 78 TUTILINAE LOCA.
Probably a small area, afterwards included within the circus Maximus, where a statue of the goddess Tutilina stood, and Ennius is said to have lived.
 
19 U.
19 - 1 UMBILICUS ROMAE.
A monument erected not -earlier than the time of Severus on the north end of the hemicycle of the ROSTRA (q.v.), and mentioned only in later literature. It is now a cylindrical brick-faced core, rising in three stages, with a diameter of 4.60 metres at the bottom and 3 at the top, but originally it was covered with marble. It represented the central point of city and empire, probably in imitation of the ὀμφαλός in Delphi and other Greek cities, and may have corresponded architecturally to the MILLIARIUM AUREUM (q.v.) at the south end of the hemicycle.
 
19 - 2 URBIS FANUM.
see VENUS ET ROMA.
 
19 - 3 URBIS FANUM.
A temple constructed by Maxentius, and consecrated to Constantine. It has recently been identified with the round structure generally called the TEMPLUM DIVI ROMULI, which has an entrance on the Sacra via, the bronze doors of which are still preserved. There is a facade of four columns, behind which on each side is a niche. The construction shows a clever use of an awkward triangular site. See PAX, TEMPLUM.
 
19 - 4 AD URSUM PILEATUM.
The name of a cemetery on the Via Portuensis where the bodies of SS. Abdon and Sennen were buried transferred the bodies of SS. Faustinus, Simplicius, and Beatrix from the cemetery of Generosa to a church of S. Paul close to S. Bibiana, not far from the Porta Tiburtina, which he founded. Here, in the sixteenth century, Bosio read an inscription, which began as follows, Latin. This shows that the name had wrongly been transferred to this district in the Middle Ages and by the topographers of the sixteenth century. For a statue of a bear wearing a helmet, which is said to have been found by Bernini when rebuilding the church of S. Bibiana, see Baldinucci, Vita del Bernini.
 
19 - 5 USTRINUM ANTONINORUM.
the name given by Bianchini in 1703 to the remains of. a structure discovered in that year under the Casa della Missione, just north-west of the Piazza di Monte Citorio. This building, with an orientation like that of the columns of Antoninus and Marcus Aurelius, consisted of three square enclosures, one within another. The two inner enclosure walls were of travertine; the outer consisted of a travertine kerb, on which stood pillars of the same material with an iron grating between them. The innermost enclosure was metres square, the second 23, and the outer 30 metres square. A free space, 3 metres wide, was left between the first and second walls and between the second and third. The entrance was on the south.

According to the usual view, this was the funeral pyre on which the bodies of the Antonines were burned. It is also possible that it may have been a great altar, attached to the column of Antoninus, on which sacrifices were offered at the deification of the emperors. Lanciani suggests that this may have been the ustrinum Antonini Pii et Faustinae, while another similar structure, of which the ruins were found in 1907 just a little to the north-east of the first, was the ustrinum M. Aurelii Antonini. 
 
19 - 6 USTRINUM DOMUS AUGUSTAE.
The name in current use for the Kaorrpa, or crematory, belonging to the mausoleum of AUGUSTUS (q.v.) in the campus Martius, and described by Strabo as an enclosure of travertine with a metal grating, presumably on top of the wall, and planted inside with black poplars. Excavations in 1777 at the corner of the Corso and Via degli Otto Cantoni brought to light six large rectangular cippi of travertine, with inscriptions of various members of the domus Augusta, the three sons of Germanicus, his daughter, Tiberius the son of Drusus, and a certain Vespasianus and a fine alabaster urn. It is very probable that these cippi, or at any rate the first three, which all end with the formula ' hic crematus est,' belonged to the ustrinum, and that this lay on the east side of the mausoleum; while the fourth and fifth, which bear the formulahic situs (or sita) est, may have belonged to the mausoleum. Hirschfeld, however, excludes this possibility, mainly because of the material and form of the cippi. 
 
20 V.
20 - 1 VALLIS EGERIAE.
see CAMENAE.
 
20 - 2 VALLIS MURCIA.
see MURCIA.
 
20 - 3 VALLIS VATICANA.
A name occurring only once, which seems to mean the low ground between the Tiber and the mons Vaticanus, (see VATICANUS (, near the present Vatican.
 
20 - 4 VATICANUS AGER.

( VATICANUS AGER.

The district on the right bank of the Tiber, between its lower reaches and the more restricted Veientine territory. Its fertility is spoken of slightingly by Cicero, its wines are frequently derided by Martial, and references to farms or estates are very few. This name continued long in use, for it occurs in Solinus, where in Vaticano is used for Vaticanus ager, and in Gellius, who gives two current explanations of the name.

It is probable that the adjective form, Vaticanus, is derived from some substantive, perhaps Vaticanum, or from the early Etruscan name of some settlement, like Vatica or Vaticum, of which all other traces have vanished, except possibly the cognomen Vaticanus which is found twice in the consular Fasti in 455 and 451 B.C..

( VATICANI MONTES

without much doubt a general designation for the hills in the ager Vaticanus, but used, in its only occurrence in litera- ture, of the long ridge from the Janiculum to the modern Monte Mario. Here campus Vaticanus must be used of the whole district between Monte Mario and the Tiber, known in modern times until very recently as the Prati di Castello.

( VATICANUS MONS

In the singular could be used of any one of the montes within the limits of the ager Vaticanus. It occurs ian Horace, where it means the Janiculum, and in Juvenal, where it is more general, as the clay pits are scattered all along this ridge. Festus' Vaticanus collis is to be explained as a mere variant of mons, introduced simply for the sake of the etymology. There is no evidence that Vaticanus mons was a specific name for any one part of the ridge during the classical period. It was in consequence of the gradual restriction of Vaticanum (see below) to the area occupied by the CIRCUS GAI ET NERONIS (q.v.), and the identification of this site as the burial place of S. Peter, that Vaticanus mons became localised in its mediaeval and modern sense. With this new importance in Christian Rome, it took its place among the seven hills.

( VATICANA VALLIS

used once, by Tacitus, for the site of the circus Gai et Neronis, or, if not for its exact site, for the entrance to the depression of the modern Vicolo del Gelsomino, just south-west of the area occupied by the circus proper.

VATICANUM

the substantive, either an original place name or the neuter of the adjective (see above), which was used first to designate, in whole or in part, the level district between the Janiculum-Monte Mario ridge and the Tiber, being more or less equivalent to Cicero's campus Vaticanus, and extending south, probably to the city limits proper. Part at least of this district was regarded as unhealthy; thrice tombs are mentioned that probably stood along the line of the modern Borghi; and it contained a recognised pauper element in its population.

With the building of the circus Gai et Neronis, which was also called circus Vaticanus, increased importance was given to this particular area, and Vaticanum then came to be used of the circus itself, as well as of the whole district.

Another application of the name Vaticanum seems to have been to the shrine of the Magna Mater, whose cult was established close to the circus (cf. FRIGIANUM), if we may judge from an inscription found at Lyon, also an inscription of 236 A.D. from Kastell near Mayence.
 
20 - 5 VEIOVIS, AEDES.
A temple on the island in the Tiber, the evidence for the existence of which consists of an emended text in one passage in Livy; the assumption that through ignorance of the facts Ovid used Iuppiter for Vediovis; and another assumption that the entries in the Calendar refer necessarily to a temple of Vediovis. In the same way another passage in Livy, where he is speaking of L. Furius Purpurio at the battle of Cremona in 200 B.C., may be made to refer to the same temple by reading: aedemque Vediovi (for the MSS. deo Iovi) vovit si eo die hostes fudisset. These emendations, and therefore the existence of the temple, near that of Aesculapius, are accepted by most scholars, but not by Besnier (249-27, who refuses to accept the identification of Vediovis and Iuppiter and explains the reference in the calendar by a sacrifice to Vediovis in the temple of IUPPITER IURARIUS (q.v.). See VEIOVIS IN CAPITOLIO.
 
20 - 6 VEIOVIS, AEDES.
A temple of Veiovis inter duos lucos, in the depression between the arx and Capitol, dedicated on 7th March. According to Vitruvius this temple was peculiar in having ' columns added on the right and left of the flanks of the pronaos '. It contained a statue of the deity with arrows in one hand and a goat by his side, in the form of a youthful Jupiter with whom he is identified by Ovid. It is possible that it is this statue, (or another in the same temple ?) that is mentioned by Pliny, who used 'in arce' incorrectly; for the date of foundation of this temple, see AEDES VEIOVIS IN CAPITOLIO.
 
20 - 7 VEIOVIS, AEDES, IN CAPITOLIO.
Livy states Latin, a statement so improbable that it is generally assumed that the reading of the source-aedes Vediovi .. .dedicata- became in Livy's text aedes duae Iovis... dedicatae, and that this error was accompanied by another which attributed the foundation of two temples in Capitolio to Purpurio, the AEDES IN INSULA (q.v.) and the AEDES INTER DUOS LUCOS (q.v.), which on the authority of this passage was vowed by Purpurio in 198 and dedicated by Ralla in 192. All the attempts hitherto made to reconcile Livy's statements involve a more or less drastic treatment, and the question of the temples of Vediovis in Rome cannot be determined until further evidence has been produced.
 
20 - 8 VELABRUM.
The low ground lying between the north-west slope of the Palatine and the Capitoline. The name is probably ancient, and originally it may well have been given to the whole district between these two hills, the forum valley and the river, but during the historical period it was somewhat more restricted. It was bounded approximately by the forum on the north, the slope of the Palatine and the vicus Tuscus on the east, the district traversed by the vicus Iugarius on the west, while the line of separation between it and the forum Boarium passed through the present church of S. Giorgio in Velabro and is marked by the arcus argentariorum. According to tradition, which there seems to be no good reason to doubt, this district was originally very swampy, with sufficient water to float small boats, until it was drained by the construction of the cloaca Maxima and the connecting system of sewers. It was always, however, subject to inundation when the Tiber was very high. The meaning and etymology of Velabrum are uncertain. Varro derived it a vehendo, and Plutarch also suggests a derivation from the vela carried in processions, but neither these nor those of modern scholars are satisfactory.

The Velabrum was an important centre of industrial and commercial activity, and in particular of the trade in food-stuffs, oil and wine. It was a locus celeberrimus urbis, for all the traffic between the forum and the pons Sublicius passed through the streets that bounded it, the vicus Tuscus and the vicus Iugarius, but it seems to have contained only one shrine, that of Acca Larentia. In two passages in poetry, Velabra is used in the plural, and in Varro a distinction is made between Velabrum maius and Velabrum minus, but it is not possible to determine what this is.
 
20 - 9 VELIA.
The ridge or spur that stretched out from the middle of the north side of the Palatine towards the Oppius, more commonly called SUMMA SACRA VIA (q.v.) in later times, and marked by the arch of Titus. It was reckoned as one of the seven hills on which the Septimontium was celebrated. The name appears more frequently in the singular, but also in the plural.  The hill is described by Dionys. as ὑψ.; and a primitive grave found in 1908 near the arch of Titus lay at about 28 metres above sea-level, whereas virgin soil was found in the lowest part of the forum valley at 3.60 metres, and in connection with the excavation of the Sepulcretum, at 10.63 metres. The original height of the ridge may have been somewhat diminished by the construction of the DOMUS AUREA of Nero (q.v.). The meaning and derivation of the Velia is as uncertain now as it was in antiquity. The Velia is regularly mentioned in extant literature in connection with the aedes deum Penatium and the domus Valeriorum, under which rubrics the references will be found.
 
20 - 10 VENERENSES.
See VICUS VENERIS ALMAE.
 
20 - 11 VENUS, AEDES.
A temple, evidently near the forum, of which nothing whatever is known except that it was totally destroyed by fire in 178 B.C.
 
20 - 12 VENUS CALVA, TEMPLUM.
A temple which the Roman senate is said to have ordered built at some unknown date in honour of those Roman matrons who had given their hair for bowstrings. Nothing further is known of this temple and its existence is very doubtful.
 
20 - 13 VENUS CLOACINA.
see CLOACINA, SACRUM.
 

20 - 14 VENUS ERUCINA, AEDES.
A temple on the Capitoline, probably within the area Capitolina, which, together with the temple of MENS (q.v.), was vowed by the dictator Q. Fabius Maximus, in accordance with the instructions of the Sibylline books, after the defeat at Lake Trasumenus in 2B.C., and dedicated by Fabius as duovir in 215. The temples of Venus and Mens were separated by a sewer. It is altogether probable that this is the temple known during the empire as aedes Capitolina Veneris, in which Livia dedicated a statue of an infant son of Germanicus, and Galba a necklace of precious stones.
 
20 - 15 VENUS ERUCINA, AEDES.
A temple of the Venus of Mt. Eryx in Sicily vowed during the war with the Ligurians by L. Porcius Licinus when consul in 184 B.C., and dedicated by him as duumvir in 18It was outside the porta Collina but not far from it, and probably on the west side of the via Salaria, perhaps near the present Via Belisario. Festivals were celebrated here on 23rd April, the Vinalia, and on 24th October. According to Strabo, it was a copy of the temple at Mt. Eryx, and surrounded by a noteworthy porticus. This seems to have been a resort of questionable characters. As this inscription contains the only post-Augustan reference to the temple, it is not unlikely that during the empire it was called the temple of VENUS HORTORUM SALLUSTIANORUM (q.v.), which name occurs on three inscriptions. The gardens of Sallust extended as far as the via Salaria.
 
20 - 16 VENUS FELIX, AEDES.
The existence of this temple is indicated by an inscription found in the Villa Altier, which may point to the site of the temple having been near the Horti Sallustiani. This temple may possibly have been built by Sulla, but nothing is known of it.
 
20 - 17 VENUS GENETRIX.
see FORUM IULIUM.
 
20 - 18 VENUS HORTORUM SALLUSTIANORUM, AEDES.
A temple in the HORTI SALLUSTIANI (q.v.) which is mentioned in three inscriptions. It is probable that this is only a late name for the temple of VENUS ERUCINA (q.v.) which lay within the limits of these gardens, but the attempts to identify it with any ruins that have been found have proved unsuccessful.
 
20 - 19 VENUS IN PALATIO.
see ᾿Αφροδίσιον.
 
20 - 20 VENUS (LIBITINA), TEMPLUM.
A temple of Venus with whom Libitina had been identified, in the LUCUS LIBITINAE(q.v.) on the Esquiline. The date of its erection is not known, but its day of dedication was 19th August, the Vinalia rustica.
 
20 - 21 VENUS OBSEQUENS, AEDES.
A temple built by Q. Fabius Maximus Gurges, out of fines imposed on women convicted of adultery. It was begun in 295 B.C., and dedicated after the close of the third Samnite war . It was ad circum Maximum, that is probably near the south-east end of the circus on the Aventine side, near the shrine of Murcia. The day of dedication was 19th August, the Vinalia rustica. It is mentioned in the third century.
 
20 - 22 VENUS ET ROMA, TEMPLUM.
The double temple on the Velia built by Hadrian, and dedicated to Venus Felix, the ancestress of the Roman people, and to the genius of the city, Roma aeterna. The association of these two divinities on a coin of C. Egnatius Maximus is noticed by Babelon. It was also called templum urbis Romae, templum urbis, urbis Venerisque templa, and possibly templum Veneris. The plans were drawn by Hadrian himself, and evoked sharp criticism from his Greek architect, Apollodorus, who is said to have been put to death in consequence. The temple was dedicated in 135 A.D., but perhaps finished by Antoninus Pius.

In accordance with Roman theory in such matters, it was necessary to build a separate cella for each goddess, in this case not side by side, but back to back, that of Venus facing east, and that of Roma west. In 307 the temple was injured by fire and restored by Maxentius; and the whole of the superstructure dates from his time, as was first pointed out by Nibby. It was one of the monuments that aroused the special wonder of Constantius when he visited Rome in 356, and was probably the largest and most magnificent temple in the city. It is mentioned in the Notitia (Reg. IV), and somewhat later by Prudentius, for the last time in antiquity. The history of its destruction is unknown, but in 847-853 Leo IV built the church of S. Maria Nova in its ruins (HCh 35, and this is one of the chief arguments that it was the earthquake of his reign that wrought so much harm in and around the forum. This church was rebuilt in 16and is now called S. Francesca Romana.

The temple proper was built on an enormous podium of concrete faced with travertine, 145 metres long and 100 wide, on the north side of the Sacra via, between the Velia and the Colosseum, and on the line of the main axis of the latter, necessitating the removal of the COLOSSUS NERONIS (q.v.). Owing to the slope of the ground, the height of the podium at the east end is considerable, and chambers were constructed in it for the storage of the machinery and apparatus of the amphitheatre. On this podium was a peribolus formed of a colonnade consisting of an outer wall and a single row of enormous columns of grey Egyptian granite on the sides, and probably of a double row of columns only at the ends. This colonnade had projections like propylaea at the corners and at the middle of the long sides. See JRS 1919, 184, for Ligorio's plan of it. At the west end of the podium a wide flight of steps led down to the paved area in front of the temple; but at the east end there were only two small flights. The temple proper was raised on a platform, seven steps high, in the centre of the peribolus. The two cellar ended in apses placed back to back; but a: the side walls of the cellae were prolonged so as to meet, the external appearance was that of one long rectangular building.

This temple was decastyle, of the Corinthian order, and pseudo- dipteral, the columns of the peristyle being of white marble about 1.8 metres in diameter. The cellae were narrower than the facade, and each pronaos had only four columns between the antae. The building was constructed of brick-faced concrete, and entirely covered with marble. Within the cellae, on each side, were rows of porphyry columns supporting an entablature. In the apses were five niches, alternately square and semicircular, with columns and entablatures in front of them. In the central niche of each apse was the statue of the goddess herself-Venus, in one and Roma in the other. Within the precincts of the temple were silver statues of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina, and an altar on which sacrifice was made by newly married couples, a statue of Minerva , and doubtless many more.

A single staircase, between the apses on the south side, led to the roof of the temple, which was covered with gilt tiles. A part of the west front of the temple, with its sculptured pediment, is represented on two fragments of a relief, now in the Lateran and Museo delle Terme (see PANTHEON), which shows that on this west pediment were reliefs of Mars visiting Rhea Silvia and of the she-wolf suckling the twins. Most of the west cella has been destroyed; the apse and part of the east cella still stand in ruins, with many fragments of the columns of peristyle and peribolus. This temple with its enormous peribolus falls into the same category of buildings as the imperial fora, of which it formed a virtual continuation.
 
20 - 23 VENUS VERTICORDIA, AEDES.
A temple built in 1B.C., in accordance with instructions of the Sibylline books, to atone for a case of incest among the Vestals and a prodigium that followed the acquittal of two at the first trial. The epithet referred to the power of the goddess to turn the mind from lust to purity. The day of dedication was 1st April. Servius speaks of a fanum Veneris Verticordiae in the vallis Murciae, but seems to be confusing the shrine of this goddess with that of Venus Murcia. This may show that the former was near the latter; if not, there is no indication of its location. The statue of the goddess is shown in coins of about 46 B.C. of M. Cordius Rufus.

About a century earlier Sulpicia, the wife of Q. Fulvius Flaccus, consul for the fourth time in 209 B.C., is said to have been selected, in accordance with the Sibylline books, as the most chaste woman in Rome, to dedicate a simulacrum to Venus Verticordia, but what relation this statue may have had to the later temple is not known.
 
20 - 24 VENUS VICTRIX.
A shrine or altar on the Capitol which is mentioned in the calendars with Genius populi Romani and Felicitas. Whether one shrine was dedicated to the triad, or each deity had his or her own, is perhaps not absolutely certain, but the latter hypothesis is most probable.
 
20 - 25 VENUS VICTRIX, AEDES.
A temple which, in order to escape censure for having erected a permanent theatre (see THEATRUM POMPEI), Pompeius built at the top of the central part of the cavea, so that the rows of seats might appear to be the steps leading up to it, and the whole structure be dedicated as a temple and not as a theatre. The dedication took place in Pompeius' second consulship in 55 B.C., when Honos et Virtus and Felicitas were joined with Venus, indicating that shrines of these deities stood near that of Venus. The temple is mentioned on an inscription,  and in the third century. For coins of about 44 B.C., depicting the goddess, see BM.
 
20 - 26 VERMINUS, ARA.
An altar of the deity of the disease of vermina in cattle, found in 1876 just north of the porta Viminalis, during the removal of part of the Servian agger. The altar was erected in the first century B.C. by the duumvir A. Postumius, in accordance with a lex Plaetoria. It is now in the Museo Mussolini on the Capitol, is 0.75 metre square and 1.03 high, and resembles in shape that of Alus LOCUTIUS (q.v.) on the Palatine.
 
20 - 27 VERTUMNUS.
See VORTUMNUS.
 
20 - 28 DIVUS VESPASIANUS, TEMPLUM.
A temple begun by Titus but completed by Domitian, and called templum Vespasiani et Titi, although only Vespasian's name appears in the original inscription on the upper part of the architrave. Beneath this was added a second line, which indicates a restoration, probably not extensive, by Severus and Caracalla. This inscription was complete in the seventh century and was copied by the compiler of the Einsiedeln Itinerary, but only the end of the last word has been preserved.

The temple was prostyle hexastyle, 33 metres long and 22 wide, with an unusual arrangement of the steps on account of the narrow space between the Tabularium, against which it was built, and the clivus Capitolinus. The existing remains consist of the core of the podium with some of its peperino lining, two fragments of the cella wall of travertine, part of the pedestal in the rear of the cella on which stood the statues of Vespasian and Titus, and three Corinthian columns at the south-east corner of the pronaos. These columns are of white marble, 15.20 metres high and 1.57 in diameter at the base, and support a portion of the entablature on which are the last letters of the inscription. Columns and entablature were reset in 181at which time it was still called the temple of Jupiter Tonans. A restored fragment of the cornice is in the Tabularium. The inside wall of the nearly square cella were covered with oriental marbles, and there were marble columns around its interior as in the temple of Castor. The exterior of the temple was covered with white marble
 
20 - 29 VESTA, AEDICULA.
see ATRIUM VESTAE.
 
20 - 30 VESTA, LUCUS.
The grove that formed a part of the sacred precinct of the Vestal Virgins. It originally covered the space between the ATRIUM VESTAE (q.v.) and the Palatine, along the Nova via, but was encroached upon by the continual enlargement of the Atrium, and finally, at a very late period, disappeared entirely
 
20 - 31 VESTA, AEDICULA, ARA.
A shrine which Augustus, after becoming pontifex maximus, built close to or within his own house on the Palatine, and dedicated 28th April, B.C.. It is regarded as probable that a Palladium was kept within this temple, referred to in an inscription of the fourth century from Privernum,  and that this temple became in time more important than that in the forum. No certain traces of it have been found, and its location is uncertain. Some sixteenth century drawings have been thought to represent this round temple on the Palatine, but this view has been vigorously combated by Hulsen, on apparently good grounds. 
 
20 - 32 VESTA, AEDES.
The temple of Vesta at the east end of the forum, near the fountain of Juturna and the temple of Castor, originally within the precinct of the Vestals (ATRIUM VESTAE). The building of this shrine was ascribed by some to Romulus, but wrongly according to the Roman antiquarians, who attributed it to Numa. It was, however, outside the Palatine pomerium, and cannot have antedated the second stage of the city's growth. It was a round, tholus-shaped, structure, probably in imitation of the ancient Italic hut, and said to have been built originally of wattles with a thatched roof. It was not an inaugurated templum, although it was sometimes called templum by the poets. It contained the sacred fire (see PORTA STERCORARIA), the Palladium brought by Aeneas from Troy, and other sacra, which were kept in a secret recess called the penus Vestae, but no statue of the goddess herself (See AEDICULA VESTAE, S. ATRIUM VESTAE).

This temple was undoubtedly burned when the Gauls sacked the city in 390 B.C., and again in 241 when Caecilius Metellus rescued the Palladium at the cost of his sight, which was miraculously restored. In 2it was saved from burning by the devotion of thirteen slaves, and again in it was threatened and the sacra removed. In the great fire of 64 A.D. it was burned, but soon restored, probably by Nero, and later in 19when it was restored by Julia Domna, the wife of Septimius Severus. It is mentioned in the Regionary Catalogue (Reg. VIII), and was closed by Theodosius in 394.

This temple is represented on coins dating from the end of the republic to the restoration by Julia Domna, and on fragmentary reliefs-one in the Uffizi at Florence, another in the Lateran in the fifteenth century, now lost, but known from a drawing in the Destailleur collection,  and a third formerly in the Villa Negroni, copied by Winckelmann, and now lost.

The excavations of 1883 and 1899-1900 brought to light various architectural fragments and the podium. This podium consists of four strata of concrete with facings of opus incertum and brick. The lowest stratum is a circular foundation set in the soil, 15.05 metres in diameter and 2.thick. On this rest the three others. On the east side and here and there on the other sides of these strata are tufa blocks which were the foundation of the marble steps. Almost in the centre of this podium is a cavity of trapezoidal shape, extending to the bottom of the foundation, a depth of 5 metres. The sides measure between 2.30 and 2.50 metres in length. This cavity, or favissa, was entered from the floor of the cella, and may have been the receptacle of the stercus or ashes of the sacred fire which were removed once a year and emptied out of the porta Stercoraria. Most of this foundation and podium dates from Augustus, but the favissa belongs to the early part of the principate of Domitian, and the highest stratum to the time of Septimius Severus.

The coins of Augustus, probably struck towards the end of Tiberius' reign, represent a round structure with a conical roof, standing on a base of three steps, with columns surmounted by Ionic capitals as is also the case on the Florence relief. The existing architectural fragments belong to the final restoration by Julia Domna, and these, together with the coins and reliefs, enable us to restore the temple with some degree of accuracy. The change from Ionic to Corinthian capitals seems to have been made during the first century, probably by the Flavians, but it is not probable that the temple of the third century differed materially from that of the first except in this respect and in the greater height of the podium. It was of white marble, peripteral, with twenty columns connected by metal gratings. The roof was dome-shaped, with an opening in the centre for the exit of smoke of the sacred fire. This opening must have been protected by metal work of some kind, which would allow the entrance of light. There are indications of at least one window in the cella wall. The shafts of the columns were fluted, 0.51 metre in diameter and about 4.45 in height. The door was on a level with the top of the podium, and not approached by steps as on the coins of Augustus.
 
20 - 33 VIA APPIA.
The road built in 3by the censor Appius Claudius Caecus to Capua, prolonged to Venusia in 291 and then to Tarentum, (28, and Brundusium, (26. It was among the most famous of Roman roads. Its independent existence began opposite the Septizonium, where the roads from the Colosseum and the circus Maximus and the vicus Piscinae Publicae all join; but we know nothing of the name of the short intramural portion. It issued from the PORTA CAPENA of the Servian wall, and through the wall of Aurelian by the PORTA APPIA, curving slightly and ascending through a cutting (CLIVUS MARTIS) before it reached the latter. This part of its course ran a little further north- east than the modern Via di Porta S. Sebastiano. It was flanked by tombs and columbaria both within and without the walls.

The first milestone was situated just inside the porta Appia. The original road was only gravelled; in 296 B.C. a footpath was laid saxo quadrato from the gate to the templum Martis; three years later the whole road was paved with silex from the temple to Bovillae, and in 189 B.C. the first mile, from the gate to the temple, was similarly treated. Its further course cannot be dealt with here.

The earliest milestone we have belongs to about 250 B.C., and others belong to Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian and Theodoric
 
20 - 34 VIA ARDEATINA.
The road leading to Ardea, 24 miles distant, which branched off to the southward from the VICUS PISCINAE PUBLICAE, passed through the PORTA NAEVIA (as far as which it was called Vicus PORTAE NAEVIAE), and then ran just inside the Aurelian wall as far as the postern generally known as PORTA ARDEATINA, which was removed when the great bastion was built for Paul III by Antonio da Sangallo the younger. Nothing is left of the course of the road just outside the gate. No milestones belonging to it have been found, but an inscription records a manceps viarum Laurentinae et Ardeatinae.

From this it has been concluded that these two roads diverged just outside the porta Ardeatina; but it has also been pointed out that the road which branches from the VIA OSTIENSIS (q.v.) at vicus Alexandri must be the via Laurentina mentioned by Pliny; and it is very likely that one was the vetus and the other the nova, and probably the first mentioned would be the vetus.

Another solution is to suppose that the via Ardeatina diverged from the via Appia to the right at the church of Domine quo vadis (?), as the modern road which bears the name via Ardeatina does. In that case the road which ran through the porta Naevia and the postern just mentioned would be the via Laurentina (vetus ?). This avoids the necessity of supposing the existence of three bridges  over the Almo, including that of the via Appia, within a short distance of one another. The proper name for the postern would then be porta Laurentina-if it had a name at all.
 
20 - 35 VIA ASINARIA.
A road which issued from the PORTA ASINARIA of the Aurelian wall, accessible from the via Latina, from which Belisarius diverged, in his advance on Rome, so as to enter by the PORTA ASINARIA. It is also mentioned by Festus 282, which shows that it must have run towards the via Appia and the via Ardeatina. Its course is variously indicated, but probably the modern Via Appia Nuova at first coincides with it. The via Tusculana diverges from it about 400 metres from the gate.
 
20 - 36 VIA AURELIA.
The road which led from the pons Aemilius across the low ground on the right bank of the Tiber up to the Janiculum, where it passed through the Aurelian wall by the PORTA AURELIA. This would be the via Aurelia vetus; the nova ran south of the Leonine wall and joined it at the Madonna del Riposo, ran westward through undulating country until it reached the coast a little to the south-east of Palidoro, some 20 miles from Rome, and then followed it right up to Vada Volaterrana, whence it was prolonged to Genoa by the via Aemilia.

Some inscriptions of the curatores speak of the via Aurelia vetus, nova, the Cornelia, and the Triumphalis as being all united under one administration, while others mention the Aurelia only. The road is mentioned on a gold glass inscription. 
 
20 - 37 VIA CAMPANA.
A road on the right bank of the Tiber, which led to the Campus Salinarum romanarum (see VIA OSTIENSIS, with which it was, in imperial times, united for purposes of administration). It was probably of very early origin (see VIA SALARIA, VICUS IUGARIUS). The first part of its course was identical with that of the VIA PORTUENSIS.
 
20 - 38 VIA COLLATINA.
A road which led to Collatia, I miles from Rome, diverging from the VIA TIBURTINAjust outside the PORTA TIBURTINA of the Aurelian wall. It was a road of purely local importance; and it is mentioned only in connection with the springs of the AQUA APPIAand the AQUA VIRGO (Frontinus, de aquis, i. 5, io). From Collatia a road ran to the via Praenestina
 
20 - 39 VIA CORNELIA.
The road which ran along the north side of the circus Gai, diverging from the via Triumphalis a little to the west of the pons Neronianus, near a large tomb. Various tombs orientated on its axis were found in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in the rebuilding of S. Peter's, and on it was situated the tomb of the Apostle himself. After the construction of the pons Aelius it was prolonged eastward to communicate with it (see PORTA CORNELIA). It left the Leonine wall by the porta Pertusa, and ran westward for some 9 miles. Thus far it is clearly traceable; but whether it turned northwards to Boccea or what course it followed after that is quite uncertain. It was under the curatores of the VIA AURELIA.
 
20 - 40 VIA FLAMINIA.
Constructed in 220 B.C. during the censorship of C. Flaminius from Rome to Ariminum. Its importance led to its having a special curator as early as 65 B.C., and it was restored by Augustus himself in 27 B.C.. It was a much frequented road, and the four silver cups of about the time of Trajan, found at Vicarello, on which is the itinerary by land from Rome to Gades, prove this. Cf. Hist. Aug. Maximin. 25. 2.

The road gave its name to one of the districts of Italy as early as the second century A.D. We have epigraphic testimony of the importance of the traffic on it.

The via Flaminia started in a north-north-west direction from a gate of the Servian wall on the east slope of the Capitol which had wrongly been identified with the PORTA RATUMENA, though later topographers identify it with the PORTA FONTINALIS. It turned slightly westward a little before passing the tomb of BIBULUS(q.v.), and passing the so-called tomb of the Claudii, resumed its former direction. It then ran across the campus Martius, forming the boundary between the seventh and ninth regions of Augustus, and on in an absolutely straight line to the pons Mulvius, a distance of about 3 miles. Burial on it was regarded as a special honour. (see VIA TECTA). The part within the Aurelian walls was known as the via Lata from the fourth century A.D. onwards. The modern Corso coincides absolutely with the ancient line, and the two churches which flank it where it ends in the Piazza del Popolo both stand on ancient tombs, while many other tombs were sacrificed for the construction of the PORTA FLAMINIA.

The cura of the road was generally held alone, but once appears associated with that of the Tiburtina.

The curatores of the via Clodia, which diverged from the via Flaminia at the pons Mulvius, had under them the via Cassia and a variety of other roads: The Annia, Ciminia, tres Traianae, Amerina. For the relative antiquity of the Clodia and Cassia.
 
20 - 41 VIA FORNICATA.
A street in the campus Martius, mentioned once by Livy. The name is derived from certain arches that ran beside the street or spanned it, and it may possibly be that which was afterwards called VIA TECTA.
 
20 - 42 VIA GABINA.
The name which the VIA PRAENESTINA originally bore, when it led only as far as Gabii, miles from Rome.
 
20 - 43 VIA LABICANA.
A road which diverged to the right from the via Praenestina just inside the porta Praenestina of the Aurelian wall. Between them, just outside it, is the SEPULCRUM EURYSACIS (q.v.). The fact that the gate took its name from the latter shows that the intramural portion of the road, from the porta Esquilina, should really bear the same name; though Strabo speaks of both roads as starting from the porta Esquilina, which has led to the impossible theory that they separated just outside the gate, rejoined just before the porta Tiburtina, and then separated again. The first part of the via Labicana may have belonged to the original route to Tusculum; it ran, as its name implies, in the first instance, to Labici, miles from Rome, and then joined the via Latina by crossroads at three different points. In later days, however, it very likely superseded the latter as a road for through traffic, and its summit level is 650 feet lower, and the difference in length at Ad Bivium is less than a mile. The milestones in the further portion of its course will therefore agree with either numeration. Administratively it seems to have been under the same curator as the via Latina.
 
20 - 44 VIA LATA
The later name for the intramural portion of the VIA FLAMINIA, which first occurs in the Notitia as the name of Reg. VII. It frequently occurs in the liber Pontificalis, and is perpetuated in that of the church of S. Maria in via Lata first mentioned as one of the churches to which Leo III gave gifts in 806.
 
20 - 45 VIA LATINA
A road which branched off to the left from the via Appia 830 metres from the porta Capena, and after 500 metres more passed through the PORTA LATINA of the Aurelian wall. The whole triangle between the two roads was occupied by tombs (cf. SEPULCRUM POMPONII HYLAE, SEPULCRUM SCIPIONUM), which continued for a long way along both sides of the road, which, like the via Appia, ran in a straight line for the first ii miles. Liv. ii. 39 uses it, in speaking of Coriolanus, only as a geographical description; for it was not in existence so early. Its history is unknown, but its straightness of line shows that it was not a primitive road but an artificial military highway; and it was probably constructed after the pass of Algidus had been secured in 389 B.C.; and it must have run at least as early as 334 B.C. as far as Cales.

It was joined at three different points by the via Labicana or by branches. Strabo shows that the via Latina was in his time regarded as the principal road, and indeed he classes it with the Appia and Valeria as among the most famous; but in later times the easier line taken by the via Labicana may have commended it to travellers, though the Latina was kept up also. The distance being identical, the milestones will agree with the numeration along either road. In any case the independent existence of both ceased at Casilinum, where they joined the via Appia.

At the beginning of the third century A.D. the viae Labicana and Latina vetus were under one curator. What this last road was, we do not know-nor the significance of the inscription 'Viae Latinae Gr' under a recumbent female figure holding a wheel, a personification of the road.
 
20 - 46 VIA LAURENTINA.
see VIA ARDEATINA, VIA OSTIENSIS.
 
20 - 47 VIA MERULANA.
(see DOMUS MERULANA). The name occurs in the Ordo Benedicti at the southern extremity of the via Merulana.
 
20 - 48 VIA NOMENTANA.
A road which diverged immediately outside the PORTA COLLINA from the via Salaria and soon passed through the porta Nomentana of the Aurelian wall. It originally led to Ficulea and was then prolonged to Nomentum, miles from Rome, and a prolongation of it joined the via Salaria at the twenty-sixth milestone. It was a road of purely local importance. No milestones of it have been found, and only two inscriptions of its curatores who were of equestrian rank. Brickfields were situated on it, and there are still some near the bridge over the Anio.
 
20 - 49 VIA NOVA.
see NOVA VIA.
 
20 - 50 VIA NOVA.
A street constructed by Caracalla, which ran parallel to the via Appia, along the front of the THERMAE ANTONINIANAE (q.v.), which he built. It is shown on Forma Urbis, 3, as about 30 metres wide, while the via Appia is hardly one-third of this width. It is mentioned in a Christian inscription. It can obviously have nothing to do with the via Nova mentioned by Frontinus (see HORTI ASINIANI).
 
20 - 51 VIA OSTIENSIS.
She road which led to Ostia, a distance of miles. The road from the porta Trigemina of the Servian wall, which is probably the original via Ostiensis, kept under the north-west and south-west sides of the Aventine, and was joined by a branch from the porta Lavernalis and another from the porta Raudusculana, the latter falling into it a little beyond the tomb. A piece of its pavement was found in the ditch surrounding the old Protestant cemetery in 1824. After the intersection a road continued in the same direction; but the main road ran due south, and is followed by the modern road, which crosses the Almo by a bridge under which the ancient bridge is concealed.

At the vicus Alexandri, 4 miles from Rome, a road to Lavinium diverged to the left, which must be the via Laurentina (nova?) mentioned by Pliny (see VIA ARDEATINA). An archaic milestone of the via Ostiensis was erected by the aediles.

For administrative purposes the via Ostiensis and the via Campana, which was on the right bank of the Tiber and ran to the campus Salinarum romanarum, were both under a curator of equestrian rank.
 
20 - 52 VIA PINCIANA.
See PORTA PINCIANA.
 
20 - 53 VIA PORTUENSIS.
The road leading to the portus Augusti constructed by Claudius on the right bank of the Tiber, at the mouth. It started from the pons Aemilius, and the first part of its course is identical with that of the via Campana. The PORTA PORTUENSIS (q.v.) of the Aurelian wall had a double arch, probably owing to the amount of traffic it had to carry, but the divergence occurred a good deal further on, probably a mile from the gate. The via Portuensis went to the right into hilly country, while the via Campana kept to the valley of the Tiber. The roads rejoined at the modern Ponte Galera.

With the growth of importance of the via Portuensis from the time of Constantine onwards, that of the via Ostiensis correspondingly decreased. It is to be noted that Procopius, who calls the road to Portus ὁμ.., and tells us how barges were dragged up the river by teams of oxen moving along it, must be describing the towpath, and not either the via Portuensis or even the via Campana, which is in many places at quite a considerable distance from the winding course of the river.
 
20 - 54 VIA PRAENESTINA.
A road which began at the porta Esquilina of the Servian wall, (to which the CLIVUS SUBURANUS led), and separated from the VIA LABICANA just before the PORTA PRAENESTINA. A con- siderable amount of its pavement and some interesting tombs have been found, notably the so-called Casa Tonda in the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele and the MONUMENTUM AURELIORUM. Originally it was called VIA GABINA, and led only as far as Gabii; then it was prolonged to Praeneste, a distance of 25 miles, from which a branch road led on to the via Labicana; but it was mainly a road for local traffic. It is mentioned in connection with the springs of the AQUA APPIA (Frontinus, de aquis, i. 5, IO) and the AQUA VIRGO. See references under VIA LABICANA.

Three of its milestones are known, belonging to the second century B.C., and both belonging to the time of Maxentius, but only one of its curatores, who was of equestrian rank.
 
20 - 55 VIA RECTA.
see VIA TECTA (.
 
20 - 56 VIA SACRA.
see SACRA VIA.
 
20 - 57 VIA SALARIA.
A road leading due north and then north-east, passing through the porta Collina of the Servian wall, (immediately outside which it left the via Nomentana on the right), and the porta Salaria of the Aurelian wall. It was a very ancient road, by which the Sabines came to fetch salt from the salt marshes at the mouth of the Tiber (See SALINAE), which may have thus originated even before the foundation of Rome (see VICUS IUGARIUS). There was a legend that a treaty with the Sabines was made by Tullus Hostilius. It was also the route to Antemnae and Fidenae, and later on acquired importance as the thoroughfare to Reate and, through the Apennines, to Amiternum and Ausculum. We have inscriptions of five of its curatores; and also the eighteenth milestone of Nerva. Brickfields were situated on it, no doubt beyond the bridge over the Anio.

The via Salaria vetus, and then in other lists of catacombs) undoubtedly diverged to the left from the main via Salaria, and was cut by the Aurelian wall between the second and third towers west of the gate. A very large number of tombs have been found along the first part of its course. It can be traced as far as the foot of the Monti Parioli, but no further; and though it has been supposed, it is more than doubtful whether it crossed the Tiber. It is not impossible that the name came from the fact that in 335-336 people still remembered its having been closed by the construction of the Aurelian wall. That the original road ran this way is unlikely. See Jord.
 
20 - 58 VIA TECTA (.
A street in the campus Martius, mentioned three times in the literature of the first century, which seems to have connected the region of the via Flaminia and forum with the Tarentum. The pavement of an ancient street leading in this general direction has been found at various points in the Vie di Pescheria, del Pianto, de' Giubbonari, de' Cappellari, and del Banco di S. Spirito, and on the same line as the fragments of the PORTICUS MAXIMAE (q.v.). It is possible that this was the via Tecta, so called because it was protected by some sort of a colonnade before the porticus Maximae were built.  The name VIA RECTA, which some authorities apply to the road going east from the pons Aelius to the via Flaminia, is due to a wrong reading of the first passage.
 
20 - 59 VIA TECTA (.
The name of a street outside the porta Capena, found only in Ovid, and probably applied to the via Appia between the porta Capena and the temple of MARS(q.v.) because it was bordered by some kind of a colonnade
 
20 - 60 VIA TIBURTINA.

The road which led to Tibur, 20 miles from Rome. It probably left the city by the porta Esquilina of the Servian wall. This would account for the erection over it of the arch of Augustus, (which later became the PORTA TIBURTINA), whereas the straight road from the porta Viminalis passed through a small postern (the so-called porta Chiusa) south-east of the castra Praetoria, which was closed at some unknown period. Beyond Tibur the road took the name of via Valeria as far as Cerfennia. A group of milestones has been found at the thirty-sixth mile, and the forty-third milestone also exists in situ.

The prolongation beyond Cerfennia was made by Claudius, as its name, via Claudia Valeria, implies.
 
20 - 61 VIA TRIUMPHALIS (.
A road running northwards from the  PONS NERONIANUS across the Prati di Castello, ascending the southern slopes of Monte Mario to the right of the modern road, and finally joining the via Clodia at La Giustiniana, 7 miles from Rome. It was under the same curatores as the VIA AURELIA (q.v.) but the origin of the name is unknown. Extensive brickfields which are still in use existed on the left of it, to which  probably belongs. See Jord. APOLLO ARGENTEUS,BELLONA PULVINENSIS.
 
20 - 62 VIA TRIUMPHALIS (.
The name often given to the road from the Colosseum to the Septizonium, which passes by the arch of Constantine, but without ancient authority
 
20 - 63 VICA POTA.
A shrine on the site of the DOMUS P. VALERII (q.v.), which Valerius built on the slope of the Velia towards the forum. This deity was apparently identical with or closely related to Victoria, for the shrine is called aedes Victoriae by Asconius. Another derivation was from victus and potus. The date of the dedication was 9th January.
 
20 - 64 VICTORIA, ARA.
An altar in the curia Iuliatury, this altar was regarded as the symbol of the old religion. It was removed from the senate house first by Constantius in 357, but seems to have been restored, by Julian, no doubt, and finally banished by Gratian in 382.
 
20 - 65 VICTORIA, AEDES.
A temple on the Palatine hill, ascribed by tradition to Evander, but actually built by L. Postumius Megellus out of fines levied by him during his aedileship, dedicated by him on 1st August when consul in 294 B.C.. During the years 204-19while the temple of the Magna Mater was being built, the sacred stone of that goddess was kept in the temple of Victoria. Near it Cato afterwards built a shrine of Victoria Virgo. There is no record of any restoration of this temple, and its exact site is still uncertain. See CJ 1920, 297, where Chase states that Boni identified this temple with foundations found near the arch of Titus. It was doubtless on the CLIVUS VICTORIAE (q.v.), and remains of two dedicatory inscriptions, found about 50 metres west of the present church of S. Teodoro, may indicate its position.
 
20 - 66 VICTORIA VIRGO, AEDICULA.
A shrine dedicated by Cato 1st August, 193 B.C. prope aedem Victoriae, two years after it had been vowed.
 
20 - 67 VICUS AESCULETI.
A street which must have entered or passed through the AESCULETUM (q.v.). It is known only from the occurrence of the name in the inscription on an altar dedicated by the magistri vici Aescleti to the Lares, which was found in the via Arenula about 100 metres north of the Tiber. Fragments of pavement have been found in the Via di S. Bartolommeo, and the vicus may have run in that direction.
 
20 - 68 VICUS AFRICUS.
A street somewhere on the Esquiline, known only from Varro.
 
20 - 69 VICUS APOLLINIS.
A street somewhere on the Palatine, in Region X, mentioned only on the Capitoline Base.
 
20 - 70 VICUS ARMILUSTRI.
See ARMILUSTRIUM.
 
20 - 71 VICUS BELLONAE.
Probably named from the temple of BELLONA (q.v.), but known only from one inscription
 
20 - 72 VICUS BRUTIANUS.
A street in Region XIV, mentioned only in the Capitoline Base, but probably near the CAMPUS BRUTTIANUS. 
 
20 - 73 VICUS BUBLARIUS.
A street of which the name is preserved on a fragment of the Marble Plan if the first two letters, now missing, are correctly restored. It was on the Palatine, in Region X, if we are justified in the conjecture that another fragmentary inscription contains its name, and a connection with the district AD CAPITA BUBULA (q.v.) is possible.
 
20 - 74 VICUS CAESARIS.
a street known only from one inscription which gives no indication of locality.
 
20 - 75 VICUS CAESETI.
a street somewhere in Region XIII, which may possibly have derived its name from Caesetius Rufus, whose beautiful house was coveted by Fulvia, the wife of Antonius. 
 
20 - 76 VICUS CAMENARUM.
see CAMENAE.
 
20 - 77 VICUS CANARIUS.
A street mentioned in the acts of the martyrs, and in the Mirabil, where it is called ad S. Giorgium, that is, near S. Giorgio in Velabro. This, however, is quite doubtful 
 
20 - 78 VICUS CAPITIS AFRICAE.
see CAPUT AFRICAE.
 
20 - 79 VICUS CAPITIS CANTERI.
A street somewhere in Region XIII, but otherwise unknown.
 
20 - 80 VICUS CAPRARIUS.
A street mentioned only in a bull of Paschal II of 1104 A.D, and undoubtedly identical with the viculus Capralicus which occurs in the false bull of John III of the end of the twelfth century. This street seems to have run south from the aqua Virgo and campus Agrippae, and pavement  found in the line of the via Lucchesi is thought to have belonged to it
 
20 - 81 VICUS CENSORI.
Perhaps the only vicus on the island. It is mentioned in two other inscriptions, and was probably named after an earlier member of the family, whose first representative known to us is C. Censorius Niger, in the second century. 
 
20 - 82 VICUS COLLIS VIMINALIS.
A street known only from two inscriptions, which undoubtedly ran along the ridge of the Viminal to the porta Viminalis. Its pavement has been found along a line from the via Napoli to the porta Chiusa.
 
20 - 83 VICUS COLUMNAE LIGNEAE.
A street somewhere in Region XIII, but otherwise unknown. The explanation of the name is obvious.
 
20 - 84 VICUS COMPITI PASTORIS.
A street somewhere in Region XII, otherwise unknown.
 
20 - 85 VICUS CUPRIUS.
A street on the Esquiline, running from the TIGILLUM SORORIUM north across the slope of the Carinae to the Subura. It crossed the CLIVUS ORBIUS(q.v.) at its highest point, where the daughter of Servius Tullius is said to have driven over the body of her murdered father. The vicus, therefore, seems to have coincided with the Vie del Colosseo and del Cardello. Varro derives the name from a Sabine word and uses this derivation as evidence that the Sabines settled here. The churches of S. Maria and S. Nicolao inter duo were so called because they stood between this street and the COMPITUM ACILII.
 
20 - 86 VICUS CURIARUM.
A street in Region X, which was probably close to the CURIAE VETERES(q.v.) on the east side of the Palatine, and named from that building.
 
20 - 87 VICUS CURVUS:
Probably a street on the Esquiline, the name of which is contained in vicocurvenses of a fourth century inscription.
 
20 - 88 VICUS CYCLOPIS.
see ANTRUM CYCLOPIS.
 
20 - 89 VICUS DIANAE.
A street somewhere in Region XII, otherwise unknown.
 
20 - 90 VICUS DRUSIANUS.
A street in Region I, mentioned only in the Capitoline Base. It was probably named from the ARCUS DRUSI (q.v.), which is supposed to have stood on the via Appia not far north of its junction with the via Latina. From this point a street ran north-east over the hill to the present Lateran, which can be traced by its pavement for the first part of its course, and corresponds closely with the Via della Ferratella. This may be the vicus Drusianus.
 
20 - 91 VICUS EPICTETI.
See EPICTETENSES.
 
20 - 92 VICUS FABRICI.
see COMPITUM FABRICIUM.
 
20 - 93 VICUS FANNI.
A street mentioned only in one inscription with no indication of locality.
 
20 - 94 VICUS ... IONUM FERRARIARUM.
A street known only from one inscription found near S. Pancrazio on the Janiculum. No restoration of the name has been made.
 
20 - 95 VICUS FIDII.
A street somewhere in Region XII, but otherwise unknown.
 
20 - 96 VICUS FORTUNAE DUBIAE.
A street somewhere in Region XIII, named from a probable shrine of Fortuna dubia.
 
20 - 97 VICUS FORTUNAE MAMMOSAE.
A street in Region XII, named from a shrine of FORTUNA MAMMOSA.
 
20 - 98 VICUS FORTUNAE OBSEQUENTIS.
A street somewhere in Region I, obviously named from some shrine of Fortuna Obsequens.
 
20 - 99 VICUS FORTUNAE RESPICIENTIS.
A street on the Palatine, perhaps on the south side, named from the shrine of Fortuna respiciens.
 
20 - 100 VICUS FORTUNATI.
A street somewhere in Region XIII, otherwise unknown.
 
20 - 101 VICUS FRUMENTARIUS.
A street in Region XIII, in the neighbourhood of the warehouses on the Tiber below the Aventine, doubtless chiefly occupied by dealers in grain (cf. negotiatores frumentarii).
 
20 - 102 VICUS GEMINI.
a street somewhere in Region XIV, but otherwise unknown.
 
20 - 103 VICUS HONORIS ET VIRTUTIS.
A street named after the temple of HONOS ET VIRTUS (q.v.) in Region I. It occurs also in an inscription on a fragmentary epistyle, and probably ran from the via Appia to the temple, which doubtless stood on the slope of the Caelian, a short distance south of the porta Capena.
 
20 - 104 VICUS HUIUSCE DIEI.
A street on the Palatine, in Region X, which is supposed to have been named from a shrine or altar of Fortuna Huiusce Diei in this part of the city, like that of the same deity in the campus Martius. This is open to question.
 
20 - 105 VICUS IANUCLENSIS.
A street mentioned only in the Capitoline Base, but probably on the western slope of the Janiculum.
 
20 - 106 VICUS IOVIS FAGUTALIS.
A street on the Fagutal, named after the shrine of Jupiter Fagutalis, but known only from one inscription of 109 A.D.
 
20 - 107 VICUS INSTEIUS.
VICUS INSTEIANUS.

A street on the collis Latiaris, the southern part of the Quirinal, in which a great flood of water is said to have burst forth in 2B.C.. It probably ascended the hill near the porta Fontinalis and the modern Piazza Magnanapoli, and was destroyed by the building of the imperial fora.
 
20 - 108 VICUS IANUS.
See IANUS.
 
20 - 109 VICUS IUGARIUS.
A street that led from the forum, between the basilica Iulia and the temple of Castor, to the porta Carmentalis. Its name is said to have been derived from an altar of Iuno Iuga. It is far less likely that the name was given to this street because the makers of yokes had their shops here, or because it connected the forum and the district of the forum Holitorium. The present pavement is not ancient, but preserves the line of the street after the building of the basilica Iulia. Before the Augustan period it was a little further towards the south-east. A purpurarius (or dealer in purple stuffs) 'de vico iugario' is known to us from a sepulchral inscription.

The road later known as the vicus Iugarius was the road by which the roads from the north, north-east and east--(I) the road which preceded the via Flaminia and the clivus Argentarius; ( the via Salaria, the vicus Longus, the clivus Insteius and the Argiletum; ( the via Tiburtina and Labicana, the Subura and the Argiletum -- all reached the crossing over the Tiber just below the island. It must have kept close to the southern edge of the Capitol, to avoid the marshy ground between this hill and the Palatine. It was thus, there is little doubt, a part of the original trade route which led to the river, perhaps before there was any settlement on the site of Rome at all. And there is also a strong pro- bability that it was the salt marshes on the right bank of the Tiber (see VIA SALARIA) that were in use in these early days; otherwise, the roads from the north and north-east, at any rate, would have made for the west side of the Capitol (porta Carmentalis or Flumentana) and not for its east side.

Just as the line of the vicus Iugarius belonged originally to the trade route from the north, north-east and east to the west and north-west, so that of the road through the valley of the circus Maximus (see FORUM BOARIUM) belonged to the route from the west and north-west to the south and south-east, forming the approach from the Tiber crossing to the via Castrimoeniensis and the road to Conca, which approached respectively the central district of the Alban Hills and their south-western slopes, the latter going on to join the ancient road at the foot of the Volscian mountains, which led to Terracina or Anxur long before the via Latina, and via Appia (both of them artificial military roads, taking a perfectly straight line) were even contemplated, and formed the other route to Capua, Naples, and Magna Graecia. 
 
20 - 110 VICUS LACI FUNDANI.
see LACUS FUNDANUS.
 
20 - 111 VICUS LACI MILIARI.

VICUS LACI RESTITUTI.

VICUS LACI TECTI

streets in Regions XIII, XIV and XII, respectively, known only from the Capitoline Base, but evidently from more or less conspicuous fountains. The meaning of Restitutus and Tectus is plain; that of Miliarius only conjectural.
 
20 - 112 VICUS LARUM ALITUM.
A street somewhere in Region XIII.
 
20 - 113 VICUS LARUM CURIALIUM.
The probable name of a street in Region XIV, due to an emendation of the uncertain reading ruralium of the Capitoline Base. No lares rurales are known, but an ara Larum curialium  has been found on the via Portuense, with which this vicus may be connected.
 
20 - 114 VICUS LICINIANUS.
A street known only from one inscription that was found on the via Tiburtina, four miles from Rome.
 
20 - 115 VICUS LONGI AQUILAE.
See AQUILENSES.
 
20 - 116 VICUS LONGUS.
The street that traversed the valley between the Quirinal and the Viminal and joined the ALTA SEMITA (q.v.) inside the porta Collina, very near where the via Quintino Sella runs into the via Venti Settembre. It is mentioned first by Livy in connection with the dedication of an altar to Pudicitia Plebeia (Fest. 237) in the year 296 B.C. In this street were also shrines to Febris and FORTUNA, and it occurs on two inscriptions of the empire. The pavement of this street has been found on a line that crosses the via Nazionale at an angle of twenty degrees near the Banca d'Italia, at various points between the bank and the baths of Diocletian, a distance of one kilometre. The valley through which it ran has been artificially filled up. A considerable part of the north-east section was destroyed by the erection of these baths.
 
20 - 117 VICUS LORARIUS.
A street evidently named from the lorarii, or harness- makers, but known only from one inscription, which was found on the via Appia near the Torre di Selci, with no indication of location.
 
20 - 118 VICUS LORETI MINORIS, MAIORIS.
see LORETUM.
 
20 - 119 VICUS MAMURI.
see CLIVUS MAMURI.
 
20 - 120 VICUS MATERIARIUS.
A street somewhere in Region XIII. It evidently took its name from lumber yards or carpenters' shops, and was probably in the warehouse district between the Aventine and the Tiber.
 
20 - 121 VICUS MERCURII EBRII.
A street the existence of which is inferred by Lanciani from a fragment of a papyrus published by Nicole, where the words ... tes a Mercurio Ebriu occur. It would be a parallel to the VICUS SOBRIUS or MERCURII SOBRII.
 
20 - 122 VICUS MINERVI.
A street in Region VII, known only from the inscription on a small altar erected in honour of Stata Mater Augusta by the magistri of that region. This altar was found just outside the porta Pinciana, and the vicus may have run north-east from that gate.
 
20 - 123 VICUS MUNDICIEI.
A street somewhere in Region XIII. The name may be due to the presence in the street of shops for toilet articles and luxuries.
 
20 - 124 VICUS NOVUS.
A street somewhere in Region XIII.
 
20 - 125 VICUS PACRAI ...
A street somewhere in Region XIV. All emendations are mere conjectures.
 
20 - 126 VICUS PADI.
A street in Region X, mentioned only on the Capitoline Base. It was probably on the eastern slope of the Palatine, towards the Caelian and the arch of Constantine.
 
20 - 127 VICUS PALLACINAE.
See PALLACINA.
 
20 - 128 VICUS PANISPERNAE.
This name is probably derived from that of an ancient locality near the church of S. Lorenzo in Panisperna on the Viminal. The name comes into use about l000 A.D.; it was previously, called S. Laurentii in Formoso or ad Formosum, from the name of its founder.
 
20 - 129 VICUS PATRICIUS.
A street that branched off from the Subura and ran north between the Cispius and the Viminal to the porta Viminalis, and perhaps beyond (cf. ISIS PATRICIA). It seems to have formed the boundary between Regions IV and VI, and to have corresponded closely with the modern Via Urbana. The name is of doubtful origin, although explained by Roman antiquarians. It is mentioned under the empire, and in LP, once as a clivus Patricius, which may have been the upper part of the vicus. Eins. mentions the church of S. Euphemia in vico Patricio.
 
20 - 130 VICUS PAULI.
A street somewhere in Region XIV, otherwise unknown.
 
20 - 131 VICUS PISCINAE PUBLICAE.
see PISCINA PUBLICA.
 
20 - 132 VICUS PLATANONIS.
see PLATANONIS.
 
20 - 133 VICUS PLOTI.
A street somewhere in Region XIV, otherwise unknown.
 
20 - 134 VICUS PORTAE COLLINAE.
see ALTA SEMITA.
 
20 - 135 VICUS PORTAE NAEVIAE.
see PORTA NAEVIA.
 
20 - 136 VICUS PORTAE R(A)UDUSCULANAE.
see PORTA RAUDUSCULANA.
 
20 - 137 VICUS PULVERARIUS.
A street somewhere in Region I. If pulvis here means pulvis Puteolanus, this street may have been named from the pozzolana beds outside the porta Appia. See SCHOLA CALCARIENSIUM.
 
20 - 138 VICUS QUADRATI.
A street somewhere in Region XIV, but otherwise unknown.
 
20 - 139 VICUS RACILIANI MAIORIS-MINORIS.
A street in Region XIV, otherwise unknown, but probably to be connected with the PRATA QUINCTIA(q.v.): for Cincinnatus' wife's name was Racilia. An inscription recording the gift of a statue of Hercules to a collegium iuvenum Racillanensium, which was recently noticed in a shop near the Janiculum, no doubt came from the same locality.
 
20 - 140 VICUS ROSTRATAE.
A street in Region XIV, probably named from some monument decorated with rostra.
 
20 - 141 VICUS SABUCI.
A street in Region III, known only from one inscription that was found in the via Merulana near S. Martino ai Monti. The form Sabucus, (for Sambucus, the elder-tree), is also found in Serenus Sammonicus A.D. 230 (?).
 
20 - 142 VICUS SALUTARIS.
The name of two streets, one on the Palatine in Region X, the other somewhere in Region XIV. Both are known only from the Capitoline Base. 
 
20 - 143 VICUS SALUTIS.
see CLIVUS SALUTIS.
 
20 - 144 VICUS SANDALIARIUS.
A street in Region IV, probably north-east of the templum Pacis, which evidently derived its name from the shops of the cobblers (sandaliarii). In this vicus Augustus set up a statue of APOLLO SANDALIARIUS (q.v.). It was near the temple of Tellus (Reg. IV), and may perhaps have coincided with the northern part of the Via del Colosseo (cf. CLIVUS CUPRIUS). At a later period it contained most of the book shops of Rome. The name occurs in three inscriptions. From its ascent the old church of S. Blasius de Ascesa took its name. 
 
20 - 145 VICUS SAUFEI.
A street somewhere in Region XIV, otherwise unknown.
 
20 - 146 VICUS SCAURI.
see CLIVUS SCAURI.
 
20 - 147 VICUS ... MI PUBLICI.
see VICUS ... SI ... LUC ... I.
 
20 - 148 VICUS SCELERATUS.
see CLIVUS ORBIUS.
 
20 - 149 VICUS SERGI.
A street in Region XIV, otherwise unknown.
 
20 - 150 VICUS SILANI SALIENTIS.
A street on the Aventine in Region XII, which seems to have been named from a fountain.
 
20 - 151 VICUS SOBRIUS.
A street in Rome mentioned in Festus. The same street seems to be referred to in two inscriptions. A shrine was found in 1888 on the Esquiline near the Torre Cantarelli dedicated to Mercurius, but whether this is Mercurius Sobrius is purely a matter of conjecture. Cf. VICUS MERCURII EBRII.
 
20 - 152 VICUS STATAE MATRIS.
A street on the Caelian in Region II, known from the inscription on an altar of Stata Mater. This altar may have been set up here after it had been removed from its original position in the forum, perhaps by Sulla.
 
20 - 153 VICUS STATAE SICCIANAE.
A street somewhere in Region XIV. This Stata may possibly be identified with STATA MATER.
 
20 - 154 VICUS STATUAE VALERIANAE.
See STATUA VALERIANA.
 
20 - 155 VICUS SULPICIUS.
A street on which the baths of Caracalla were said to be situated. It must therefore have extended along one side of the baths. On the Capitoline Base in Region I are mentioned a vicus Sulpicius ulterior and a vicus Sulpicius citerior, which would seem to indicate that by the fourth century at least the street was divided. As the baths were in Region XII, the most probable location of the vicus Sulpicius is on their southern side, for the most part inside Region I. The vicus may have formed part of the boundary between I and XII. If the vicus crossed the via Appia, ulterior and citerior may have indicated its two sections.
 
20 - 156 VICUS SUMMI CHORAGI.
see SUMMUM CHORAGIUM.
 
20 - 157 VICUS TIBERINI.
A street in Region XIV, mentioned only on the Capitoline Base. There is no certain indication of its position, although this name has been given by Lanciani to a street of which the pavement has recently been found under the modern Via della Lungarina between the Viale del Re and the Piazza del Drago.
 
20 - 158 VICUS TRIARI.
see CLIVUS TRIARIUS.
 
20 - 159 VICUS TRIUM ARARUM.
see CLIVUS SCAURI.
 
20 - 160 VICUS TRIUM VIARUM:.
A street somewhere in Region XIII, otherwise unknown.
 
20 - 161 VICUS TURARIUS.
see VICUS TUSCUS.
 
20 - 162 VICUS TUSCUS.
VORTUMNUS (q.v.) stood in this street 'quod is deus Etruriae princeps' (Varro, loc. cit.). From its situation it must have been a very busy thoroughfare, and there were shops of various kinds in it.

The dealers in incense and perfume (turarii) seem to have become the most important of all, for the later commentators use vicus Turarius for vicus Tuscus.

This street seems to have borne an unsavoury reputation. In 1899 the removal of the late classical or mediaeval pavement of this street between the basilica Iulia and the temple of Castor exposed to view for a while about metres of a pavement of small cubes of brick, which antedated the rebuilding of the temple by Tiberius and probably belonged to its earlier precinct; but this has been covered up again.
 
20 - 163 VICUS V(ALER)I (?).
A street somewhere in Region XIII.
 
20 - 164 VICUS VENERIS ALMAE.
A street in Region XII, the inhabitants of which are probably the Venerenses of a fourth century inscription. This cult of Venus may possibly be connected with that in the circus Maximus valley (cf. AD MURCIAE).
 
20 - 165 VICUS VESTAE.
A street in Region VIII, known only from a fragmentary inscription dedicated to the Lares Augusti. It has been conjectured that this was the street that led from the temple of Vesta, past the temple of Castor, up to the north-west corner of the Palatine, in the general line of the ramp which still exists, and this may be referred to in Ovid. Another theory puts this vicus at the eastern end of the Atrium Vestae.
 
20 - 166 VICUS VICTORIS.
A street somewhere in Region XII, possibly near the porta Ardeatina 
 
20 - 167 VICUS VIRIDIARII.
The name of a street on one inscription, which is reported to have been found outside Rome on the via Praenestina (Gabina), but is supposed to belong to the city. There is no indication of the location of the street.
 
20 - 168 VICUS VITRARIUS.
A street somewhere in Region I, mentioned only in the Notitia and otherwise unknown.
 
20 - 169 VICUS UNGUENTARIUS.
A street somewhere in Region VIII, mentioned only in the Notitia, but evidently named from the shops of the perfume sellers.
 
20 - 170 VICUS ... SI... LUC.. . I.
A street in Region XIV, mentioned only in the Capitoline Base.
 
20 - 171 VICUS CEIOS (?).
A street somewhere in Region XIV. Both the actual reading of the inscription and its emendations are disputed.
 
20 - 172 VIGILES.
See COHORTIUM VIGILUM STATIONES.
 
20 - 173 VILLA COPONIANA.
The villa of a certain Coponius, perhaps one of the two brothers, Gaius and Titus, contemporaries of Cicero. It is mentioned once, and may possibly have been included in the HORTI DRUSI.
 
20 - 174 VILLA PUBLICA.
The only public building in the campus Martius proper before the end of the republic, built in 435 B.C., restored and enlarged in 194, and probably again in 34 B.C. by Fonteius Capito. It is represented on a coin of Fonteius as a walled enclosure, within which was a square building with two stories, of which the lower opened outward with a row of arches. It was also decorated with paintings and statues. If, as seems probable, the Villa is represented on fragments of the Marble Plan, it existed as late as the second century, but much reduced in size and merely as a monument of antiquity. No ruins have been found, but its site, just north of the Piazza del Gesu, is determined as close to the Saepta, the circus Flaminius, and the temple of Bellona, for the senate, assembled in this temple, heard the groans of the four thousand prisoners taken in the battle of the Colline Gate in 82 B.C., who were being massacred by Sulla's orders within the Villa. The building served as headquarters for state officers when engaged in taking the census or levying troops, and generals who desired a triumph and foreign ambassadors were lodged here, e.g. those from Carthage in 202 B.C., and from Macedon in 197.
 
20 - 175 VIMINALIS COLLIS.
The smallest of the traditional seven hills of Rome, extending south-west from the Esquiline plateau. It is separated from the Cispius on the south-east by the valley traversed by the VICUS PATRICIUS (q.v.), and from the Quirinal on the north-west by the low ground now marked by the line of the Via Nazionale. Like the Quirinal it is a tongue of land about 700 metres long, with a present area of approximately 24 ha. and a height of 50-57 metres. Originally its height was somewhat greater. This hill derived its name from the osiers (vimina) that grew there (IUPPITER VIMINALIS), and it was regularly called collis, not mons, and those who lived there collini, not montani. It became part of the City of the Four Regions (cf. QUATTUOR REGIONES), making with the Quirinal the third, Regio Collina. When the Servian wall was built, the Viminal seems to have been regarded as reaching across the plateau as far as the line of the wall and the PORTA VIMINALIS (q.v.). Later this district was included in the sixth region of Augustus. The Viminal was always the least important of the hills of the city, and contained few monuments, and traffic for the most part passed on either side of it. 
 
20 - 176 VIRGO CAELESTIS.
A shrine of this deity, the patron of Carthage, appears to have existed on the north summit of the Capitol on the spot afterwards occupied by the church of S. Maria in Aracoeli, which took its name from a misreading of the inscription on the mediaeval high altar.
 
20 - 177 VIRTUS, ἱερόν.
A shrine built by the younger Scipio after his capture of Numantia, of which nothing more is known
 
20 - 178 VIRTUS, SIGNUM.
A statue which probably stood outside the porta Collina, as the inscription recording its dedication was found in the Via Venti Settembre when the Ministero delle Finanze was being built. This is the only dedication to Virtus that has been found in Rome. The same statue is perhaps referred to by Cass. Dio, and the existence of a statue or statues probably indicates a shrine, in or near the temple of HONOS. 
 
20 - 179 VINEA PUBLICA.
Apparently a public vineyard or park, known only from the inscription on a terminal cippus of 75 A.D.. This was found outside the Aurelian wall between the 'porta Ardeatina' and the porta Appia, and probably the vinea lay south of the Bastione del Sangallo, within the limits of Region XII, if this region ever extended beyond the line of the wall.
 
20 - 180 VIVARIUM.
an enclosure in which wild beasts intended for use in the amphitheatre were kept. It is mentioned in one inscription of 241 A.D., and by Procopius. Procopius states distinctly that it was close to the porta Praenestina, that its outer walls were low without towers or battlements, and that it opened directly into the city by a gate. This description indicates a rectangular enclosure, just outside the porta Praenestina, between the Aurelian wall where it coincides with the aqua Claudia and the via Labicana. In the twelfth century and later the castra Praetoria was called Vivarium, and a building just south of it the Vivariolum (Vivaiolo). This fact, together with some evidence supposed to be derived from the alleged place of discovery of the inscription, has been regarded by some as proof that the Vivarium was this building south of the Castra, but this view can hardly be maintained against the direct testimony of Procopius.
 
20 - 181 VOLCANAL.
The cult-centre of Vulcan at the foot of the Capitoline at the north-west corner of the forum, consisting of an uncovered altar of the god, ascribed by tradition to Titus Tatius, and the space, probably enclosed, immediately around it. The term area Volcani, which was in common use, may have been synonymous with Volcanal, or perhaps have included some adjacent ground (See GRAECOSTASIS). This area, probably always a locus substructus, was about 5 metres higher than the comitium, and from it the kings and magistrates of the early republic, before the rostra was built, addressed the people. On the Volcanal was a statue of Horatius Codes, that had been moved from the comitium, a locus inferior; a bronze quadriga dedicated to Vulcan, and a statue of Romulus with a tablet containing a list of his exploits in Greek letters, both said to have been erected by Romulus; and in Pliny's time a lotos tree, still growing and said to be as old as the city. The Volcanal is mentioned twice in connection with the prodigium of a shower of blood. On 23rd August, the Volcanalia sacrifice was offered here to Vulcan, as is indicated by the entry in Fast., under this date Maiae supr(a) comi(tium); for the worship of Maia here; and we are told that live fish were also brought to the area Volcani to be offered up to the god.

A pedestal dedicated to Vulcan by Augustus in 9 B.C. has been found near S. Adriano, showing that the cult lasted at least down to the early empire, although the Volcanal must have been diminished in size by the encroachment of surrounding buildings, and perhaps entirely covered at last. Just behind the arch of Severus some early tufa foundations have been found which probably belonged to the Volcanal, and traces of a sort of rock platform, 3.95 metres long by 2.80 wide, which had been covered with cement and painted red. Its upper surface is cut by various channels, and in front of it are the remains of a drain made of tufa slabs. This may possibly have been the ara itself. It shows signs of having been damaged and repaired. In the surface of this rock are cuttings, round and square, which have some resemblance to graves and are so regarded by some writers, e.g. Richter, BRT iv. 15-16, and Von Duhn; the latter, in connection with the discoveries of early cremation tombs in the forum, which he discusses fully, maintains that the Volcanal was in the earliest days set aside as an area in which corpses were burnt. The tombs themselves he assigns to the Palatine, and makes the earliest of them contemporary with the later tombs of the Alban Hills.
 
20 - 182 VOLCANUS, AEDES.
A temple in the campus Martius, built before 2B.C. for in that year-and again in 197-it was struck by lightning. Tradition ascribed it to Romulus himself. It was outside the walls of the city. Near it Verres had erected gilded equestrian statues presented to him by the aratores of Sicily. On 23rd August, the Volcanalia, sacrifice was offered to Vulcan (seeVOLCANAL). The calendars differ, however, the Fasti Vallenses reading Volcano in circo Flaminio, while the Arvales contain no indication of place unless Volcano is to be united with the following Nymphis in campo. If this is so, it would suggest a possible site at the north end of the Saepta. This site, however, is far from the circus Flaminius and makes it necessary to assume an error in the Fasti Vallenses. For a discussion of the origin of the cult of Vulcan and his identification with other deities, see Carcopino. 
 
20 - 183 VOLUPIA, SACELLUM.
A shrine near the PORTA ROMANULA (q.v.) at the point where the Nova via entered the Velabrum. It contained a statue of diva Angerona with her finger held to her lips, to whom sacrifice was offered her on her festival, the Divalia or Angeronalia, on 21st December. The exact site cannot be fixed.
 
20 - 184 VORTUMNUS, AEDES.
A temple in the Vicus LORETI MAIORIS (q.v.) on the Aventine, in which was a portrait of M. Fulvius Flaccus in the robes of a triumphator. As Vortumnus was a deity of Volsinii, and Fulvius celebrated a triumph over the Volsinians in 264 B.C., it is probable that the temple was built by him at that time for the god who had been brought to Rome. The day of dedication was 13th August. The temple was probably on the north-west part of the Aventine.
 
20 - 185 VORTUMNUS, SIGNUM.
see STATUA VORTUMNI.
 
23 Additions.
23 - 1 Columbarium of Pomponius Hylas.

The Columbarium of Pomponius Hylas is a 1st-century AD Roman columbarium, situated near the Porta Latina on the Via Appia, Rome, Italy. It was discovered and excavated in 1831 by Pietro Campana.

Though its name derives from Pomponius Hylas, who lived in the Flavian period (69-96 AD), the building itself has been dated to between and 54 AD due to inscriptions on two of its niches (one dedicated to a freedman of Tiberius and the other to a freedman of Claudia Octavia, daughter of Claudius and Messalina). It was later bought by Pomponius Hylas for himself and his wife, and he added the mosaic panel over the entrance steps, which is decorated with griffins and reads:

CN(aei) POMPONI HYLAE E(t) POMPONIAE CN(aei) L(ibertae) VITALINIS


(Of Gnaeus Pomponius Hylas and Pomponia Vitalinis the freedwoman of Gnaeus)

The inscription also has a V (meaning vivit) over Pomponia's name, showing she was alive when the panel was added.
 
23 - 2 Vatican Necropolis.

The Vatican Necropolis lies under the Vatican City, at depths varying between 5–meters below Saint Peter's Basilica. The Vatican sponsored archeological excavations (also known by their Italian name scavi) under Saint Peter's in the years 1940–1949 which revealed parts of a necropolisdating to Imperial times. The work was undertaken at the request of Pope Pius XI who wished to be buried as close as possible to Peter the Apostle. It is also home to the Tomb of the Julii, which has been dated to the third or fourth century. The necropolis was not originally one of the underground Catacombs of Rome, but an open air cemetery with tombs and mausolea.

The Vatican Necropolis is not to be confused with the Vatican grottoes, the latter of which resulted from the construction of St. Peter's Church and is located on the ground level of the old Constantinian basilica.

Origins of the necropolis.

The Vatican necropolis was originally a burial ground built on the southern slope of the Vatican Hill, adjacent to a circus built by Emperor Caligula. In accordance with the Roman law, it was forbidden to bury the dead within the city walls. For this reason, burial grounds sprang up along the roads outside of the city cemeteries. One of these streets, the Via Cornelia, ran north along the Vatican hill.

Caligula's Circus.

At the top of the circus that Caligula built, an Egyptian obelisk had been placed. The obelisk had been there since ancient times; in 1586 it was moved from its original place by Domenico Fontana on the orders of Pope Sixtus V when St. Peter's Square was added.

The original location, just before the current excavation Office (SCAVI) of the Fabbrica di San Pietro, is marked by a plaque in the ground.

Construction of Old St. Peter.

According to tradition, the Apostle Peter was martyred in the year 64 or 67 during the reign of Emperor Nero. Peter is said to be buried in the necropolis because of its proximity to the Circus of Nero where he was martyred. After the Edict of Milan the Emperor Constantine began construction of the first St. Peter's Church, also known as Old St. Peter's Basilica. At this time, the Roman necropolis was still in use. This is known because a coin was found inside an urn dating from 3AD. During this time, the necropolis was protected by law and was untouchable. However, Emperor Constantine I decided to build a basilica, which would be located just above the supposed grave of the Apostle Peter. To obtain the necessary amount of flat area for the planned construction, Emperor Constantine I excavated part of the necropolis of the Vatican hill, which can be seen in the figure. This caused the necropolis to be filled with soil and building debris, with the exception of St. Peter's tomb, which was preserved.

Excavations.

20th Century.

The first excavations of the Necropolis occurred from 1940–1949 during the pontificate of Pius XII. The purpose of these excavations was to locate the grave of St. Peter, which for centuries had been assumed to be beneath St. Peter's Basilica. A series of mausoleums were unearthed. The mausoleums were initially labeled with the Greek alphabet letters Φ (phi), Χ (chi) and Ψ (Psi). Later, Latin letters were used. The Mausoleum M had already been described in 1574, and Mausoleum O was discovered when it was unearthed during the construction of the foundation for the statue of Pope Pius VI. Mausoleums R and S were discovered when the southern part of the foundation for the canopy of Gian Lorenzo Bernini was created.

First, the A mausoleum was built. In later years, in rapid succession, the mausoleums B, C, D and E were built next to each other. The Mausoleum G is very likely from the same time as Mausoleum B, while Mausoleum F was probably created during the reign of Antoninus Pius (138–161 CE). These seven mausoleums were placed in a row, built as standalone buildings with different heights and forming an approximately 32-meter-long road. In later times, the gap was filled by mausoleums G and O and with other buildings. In the reign of (Emperor) Hadrian, Mausoleum O was built. Only Mausoleum H, from the second half of the 2nd Century, deviates from the straight row because of a pre-built Atrium. By this time the Circus was no longer in use; thus, it was no longer an obstacle to the spread of the necropolis to the south. The Circus at the time was already overbuilt with various tombs. A grave from the same time as the construction of Mausoleum H was found near the foundation of the obelisk. When the Circus was eventually razed, to the already existing series of mausoleums was built another group, namely the Mausoleums Z, Φ (phi), Χ (chi) and Ψ (Psi). In the period from the end of the 2nd Century to the middle of the 3rd Century, mausoleums were built along with various freestanding buildings. All buildings except Mausoleum R1 had their entrance to the south, in the direction of the circus and the Via Cornelia.

The mausoleums had been used by many generations and shared by several families. Archaeologists found around 120 burials in Mausoleum F and at least 170 in Mausoleum H. An approximate calculation of the number of body and urn burials in the 22 excavated tombs yielded a number of more than 1,000 funerals. This large number is due to the high infant mortality and low life expectancy in the 2nd Century CE.

The former owners of six mausoleums (A, C, H, L, N, and O) have been identified from inscriptions above the entrance door. Mausoleum N is an example of a mausoleum that was used by different families at the same time. The inscription reports that it is the mausoleum of Marcus Aebutius Charito, but that one half belongs to Lucius Volusius Successus and Volusia Megiste, who jointly purchased some of it.

21st Century.

More of the necropolis was unearthed in 2003 during construction of a car park. The site is now open to visitors.

Some tombs have undergone restorations, such as the ten-month project involving the Valerii Mausoleum.

St. Peter's Grave (Field P).

The field named P (Peter Campus) is the small area in which the suspected grave of the Apostle Peter is located. Peter was, according to tradition, after his martyrdom in the Circus Nero, buried here. Some 100 years after the death of Peter, a shrine was erected over his grave. This shrine is adjacent to the so-called Red Wall. Immediately adjacent to the suspected Peter grave, some other tombs were found. The arrangement of the graves suggests that the place of Peter's tomb was the site of some early veneration. The shrine, also called the "Trophy of Gaius", is named for the theologian Gaius of Rome who lived in Rome during the time of Pope Zephyrinus (198-2CE). Consider this quote from Eusebius of Caesarea:

I can show the tropaia of the apostles. Because if you want to go to the Vatican or on the road to Ostia, you'll find the tropaia of those who founded this church.

The Greek term used by Gaius—tropaion—usually means a monument or a trophy of victory. Eusebius interpreted the quote 100 years later as an indication of honorific graves. On the right side of the "Trophy of Gaius" is attached at right angles, the so-called Graffiti Wall, named after the large number of Latin graffiti to be found there. During the excavations in the grave the mortal remains of the Apostle Peter were not found. There were, however, in a marble-lined hole of the graffiti wall, some human bones. The archaeologist Margherita Guarducci suggested that during the time of construction of the Constantinian basilica, the remains of the Apostle Peter were removed from his original grave and placed in the opening. The archaeologist pointed to inscriptions in the wall behind the pillar monument including the letters PETR… EN I, as the designation of Peter relics. Other archaeological sites in Rome also have similar graffiti, suggesting that therein is a commemoration (by Christians) to Peter and Paul as martyrs.
 
23 - 3 Cloaca Circi Maximi.

The Cloaca Circi Maximi or Cloaca Circi was a sewer in ancient Rome.

It was originally a small stream fed by various sources from around the Porta Capena right through the valley between the Palatine Hill and Aventine Hill, running down to the river Tiber. According to tradition, games and horse races were held in this vallery from right after the founding of Rome in the 8th century. Over the centuries the Circus Maximus was built over the stream, with a channel named Euripus running across it halfway and two bridges carrying the track over it. The channel also served as the spina down the middle of the track.

Under Julius Caesar and Augustus the circus and its surroundings were greatly enlarged, covering over the channel, which became a sewer. It was connected to a tunnel modelled on that of the Cloaca Maxima and now terminated on the Tiber upstream of the Cloaca Maxima.
 
23 - 4 Porta Romanula.
La porte Romanula est une porte de la Rome antique qui appartenait à la très ancienne fortification du Palatin, selon certains à l'angle nord-ouest de la colline, du côté du Vélabre et du Forum Boarium. Elle est mentionnée par Varron.
 
23 - 5 Porta Clausa.

La Porta Clausa est une des portes qui s'ouvrait dans le mur d'Aurélien de Rome.

Histoire.

Les données historiques qui se rapportent à la Porta Clausa sont rares, probablement pour deux raisons. En premier lieu, la porte est murée depuis une époque imprécise mais lointaine. Elle tire d'ailleurs de cette particularité son nom officiel. Son nom originel est d'ailleurs inconnu. De plus, elle est aujourd'hui encore presque cachée, à hauteur des 4 et 6 via Monzambano.

Sous l'empereur Tibère, la porte constituait la porte sud du Castro Pretorio, la grande caserne de la garde prétorienne, construite entre 20 et 23 par Auguste. De là partait une route reliant plusieurs grands axes de l'Empire, route que l'empereur Aurélien, dans les années 270-273, inclut dans le secteur du périmètre défensif. A cette occasion le mur extérieur est rehaussé, équipé de nouveaux remparts plus épais, ce qui aboutit à la fermeture de plusieurs portes.

Au début du ve siècle, le mur est restauré par Flavius Honorius, et les caractéristiques architecturales qui apparaissent aujourd'hui datent précisément de cette intervention.

Description.

La façade, avec un seul fût, est couverte de travertin; l'arc mesure 8,60 m de largeur externe, avec 4,m de largeur intérieure, avec une porte verrouillable. La porte était surmontée d'un système de manœuvre, encore visible par les cinq fenêtres de l'arche. Une sixième fenêtre est à moitié obstruée par la reconstruction du mur d'enceinte, voulue par le pape Urbain VIII.

À partir de la première moitié du viiie siècle, la porte n'apparaît plus dans les itinéraires et les descriptions de Romeréf. nécessaire. Elle était soit partiellement enterrée en raison de la surélévation du terrain adjacent, soit incorporée dans une propriété privée.
 
23 - 6 Porta Praetoriana.
Entrance to the Praetorianan Guard. Known in name only.
 
23 - 7 Porta Principalis Dextera.

De Porta Principales Dextera is een van de vier toegangspoorten in de muur van de Castra Praetoria, het antieke kamp van de Praetoriaanse Garde te Rome.

De poort.

De Porta Principales Dextera was de oostelijke poort van het kamp. De poort is nog enigszins te herkennen in het metselwerk van de muur. Naast de poort stonden waarschijnlijk twee torens

De muren van de Castra Praetoria werden tussen 271 en 275 opgenomen in de Aureliaanse Muur. Aan het begin van de 4e eeuw werden de oostelijke en noordelijke poort, die zich aan de buitenzijde van de stadsmuur bevonden, om veiligheidsredenen gesloten en dichtgemetseld.
 
23 - 8 Porta Decumana.

Gate of the Praetorian Guard.

De zuidelijke poort.
 
23 - 9 Porta Principalis Sinistra.

Gate of the Aurelian Wall.

De westelijke poort.
 
23 - 10 Villa Mills.

The book doesn't have an article for it so I made one here from AUGUSTIANA, DOMUS.

 The Villa Mills, once more, lies on a mass of solid rock, and there is no lower floor under it. It is built into the walls of this section of the palace, the plan of which is somewhat difficult to determine. The excavations made in the garden, both in 1869 and recently, and the evidence of the Marble Plan are sufficient to prove that it extended over the whole garden, and that the temple of Apollo cannot have stood there.

 
23 - 11 Colossus of Constantine.

The Colossus of Constantine (Italian: Statua Colossale di Costantino I) was a huge acrolithic statue of the late Roman emperor Constantine the Great (c. 280–337) that once occupied the west apse of the Basilica of Maxentius near the Forum Romanum in Rome. Portions of the Colossusnow reside in the Courtyard of the Palazzo dei Conservatori of the Musei Capitolini, on the Capitoline Hill, above the west end of the Forum.

Description.

The great head, arms and legs of the Colossus were carved from white marble, while the rest of the body consisted of a brick core and wooden framework, possibly covered with gilded bronze. Judging by the size of the remaining pieces, the seated, enthroned figure would have been about 12 meters (40 feet) high. The head is about 2½ meters high and each foot is over 2 meters long.

The statue's hand may have held a staff with the sacred monogram XP affixed to it. (Medals that Constantine minted around this time show him so decorated.) An inscription is said to have been engraved below the statue:

"through this sign of salvation, which is the true symbol of goodness, i rescued your city and freed it from the tyrant's yoke, and through my act of liberation i restored the senate and people of rome to their ancient renown and splendor."

The great head is carved in a typical, abstract, Constantinian style (“hieratic emperor style”) of late Roman portrait statues, whereas the other body parts are naturalistic, even down to callused toes and bulging forearm veins. The head was perhaps meant to convey the transcendence of the other-worldly nature of the Emperor over the human sphere, notable in its larger-than-life eyes which gaze toward eternity from a rigidly impersonal, frontal face. The treatment of the head shows a synthesis of individualistic portraiture: aquiline nose, deep jaw and prominent chin characteristic of all images of Constantine, with the trends of Late Roman portraiture which focus on symbolism and abstraction, rather than detail.

Constantine is enthroned in this great public work in unapproachable grandeur, like the effigy of a god, although he is really intended to reflect the Christian deity. According to Michael Grant:

"Here was the man at whose court...writers felt it appropriate to speak of the 'Divine Face' and 'Sacred Countenance'. The sculptor has conceived this countenance as a holy mask, an overpowering cult object resembling, though on a far greater scale, the icons of future Byzantium: an idol animated with the divine presence, and with the power to repel the demons lurking in pagan images."

History.

The Basilica, on the northern boundary of the Forum, was begun in 307 by Co-Emperor Maxentius. Constantine completed the Basilica after he defeated Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312. Constantine seems to have reorientated the building, changing the site of the principal entrance and adding a new northern apse. With these changes, including the great statue in the west apse, Constantine publicly and visibly declared his overthrow of his vanquished adversary. Precise dating of the statue itself is problematical; it has been suggested that a date of 312–3for the initial creation of the statue is likely from political considerations, whilst a substantial reworking of the features some time after 325 is indicated on art-historical grounds.

The Colossus was pillaged sometime in Late Antiquity, most likely for the bronze body portions. The marble portions of the statue were brought to light in 1486. The surviving remnants were later removed from the Basilica and placed in the nearby Palazzo dei Conservatori Courtyard by Michelangelo, who was working in the area. The fragments are arranged as follows from left to right: the right arm (with elbow), the head, the right kneecap, a right hand, a columned museum entrance, the left shin, the right foot, the left kneecap, an ornamented column remnant and the left foot. Strangely there are two right hands (with upraised index fingers) amongst the remains of the statue, which differ slightly. It has been proposed that the statue was re-worked at some time late in Constantine's reign and a hand holding a sceptre was replaced by a hand holding a Christian symbol.

The marble fragments underwent restoration during 2000–200Between 6 and February 2006, a 3D laser scan of the fragments was carried out on behalf of the Land of Rhineland-Palatinate in collaboration with the Capitoline Museums in Rome. Both reconstruction and castings were displayed from 2 June to 4 November 2007 as part of the major cultural and historical “Constantine the Great” Exhibition in Trier, Germany.
 
23 - 12 Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius.  

The Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius is an ancient Roman statue in the Capitoline Hill, Rome, Italy. It is made of bronze and stands 4.24 m tall. Although the emperor is mounted, it exhibits many similarities to standing statues of Augustus. The original is on display in the Capitoline Museums, with the one now standing in the open air of the Piazza del Campidoglio being a replica made in 1981 when the original was taken down for restoration.

Description.

The overall theme is one of power and divine grandeur — the emperor is over life-size and is holding out his hand in a gesture much like that in some statues of Augustus. In this case the gesture may also signify clemency as some historians assert that a fallen enemy may have been sculpted begging for mercy under the horse's raised hoof (based on accounts from mediaevaltimes which suggest that a small figure of a bound barbarian chieftain once crouched underneath the horse's front right leg). Such an image was meant to portray the Emperor as victorious and all-conquering. However, shown without weapons or armour, Marcus Aurelius seems to be a bringer of peace rather than a military hero, for this is how he saw himself and his reign.

He is riding without the use of stirrups, which had not yet been introduced to the West. While the horse has been meticulously studied in order to be recreated for other artists' works, the saddle cloth was copied with the thought that it was part of the standard Roman uniform. The saddle cloth is actually Sarmatian in origin, suggesting that the horse is a Sarmatian horse and that the statue was created to honour the victory over the Sarmatians by Marcus Aurelius, after which he adopted "Sarmaticus" to his name.

History.

The statue was erected ca. 175 CE. Its original location is debated: the Roman Forum and Piazza Colonna (where the Column of Marcus Aureliusstands) have been proposed.

Although there were many equestrian imperial statues, they rarely survived because it was the common practice to melt down bronze statues for reuse as material for coins or new sculptures in the late empire. Statues were also destroyed because medieval Christians thought that they were pagan idols. The statue of Marcus Aurelius was perhaps not melted down because in the Middle Ages it was incorrectly thought to portray the first Christian Emperor, Constantine. Indeed, it is the only fully surviving bronze statue of a pre-Christian Roman emperor; the Regisole, destroyed after the French Revolution, may have been another.

In the medieval era it was one of the few Roman statues to remain on public view. In the 8th century it stood in the Lateran Palace in Rome on a pedestal provided by Sixtus IV, from where it was relocated in 1538, by order of Pope Paul III to remove it from the main traffic of the square. It was moved to the Piazza del Campidoglio (Capitoline Hill) during Michelangelo's redesign of the Hill. Though he disagreed with its central positioning, he designed a special pedestal for it. The original is on display in the Palazzo dei Conservatori of the Musei Capitolini, while a replica has replaced it in the square.

On the night of November 29, 1849, at the inception of the revolutionary Roman Republic, a mass procession set up the Red-White-Green tricolore (now Flag of Italy, then a new and highly "subversive" flag) in the hands of the mounted Marcus Aurelius.

Cultural references.

The statue is depicted on the reverse of the Italian €0.50 euro coin, designed by Roberto Mauri.

A replica of the statue has been located on the campus of Brown University in the United States since 1908.

The statue was formerly clad in gold. An old local myth says that the statue will turn gold again on the Judgement Day.

Allegedly the Equestrian Statue of King George III of England which stood in New York City's Bowling Green until 1776 when it was thrown down and the lead turned into musket balls for George Washington's army was based upon the Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius.

The Monument to Prince Józef Poniatowski in Warsaw, from 1829, was based on this statue.
 
23 - 13 Columbarium of Pomponius Hylas.

From Wikipedia.

The Columbarium of Pomponius Hylas is a 1st-century AD Roman columbarium, situated near the Porta Latina on the Via Appia, Rome, Italy. It was discovered and excavated in 1831 by Pietro Campana.

Though its name derives from Pomponius Hylas, who lived in the Flavian period (69-96 AD), the building itself has been dated to between and 54 AD due to inscriptions on two of its niches (one dedicated to a freedman of Tiberius and the other to a freedman of Claudia Octavia, daughter of Claudius and Messalina). It was later bought by Pomponius Hylas for himself and his wife, and he added the mosaic panel over the entrance steps, which is decorated with griffins and reads:

CN(aei) POMPONI HYLAE E(t) POMPONIAE CN(aei) L(ibertae) VITALINIS


(Of Gnaeus Pomponius Hylas and Pomponia Vitalinis the freedwoman of Gnaeus)

The inscription also has a V (meaning vivit) over Pomponia's name, showing she was alive when the panel was added.
 
23 - 14 Mausoleum of Helena.

From Wikipedia.

The Mausoleum of Helena is an ancient building in Rome, Italy, located on the Via Casilina, corresponding to the 3rd mile of the ancient Via Labicana. It was built by the Roman emperor Constantine I between 326 and 330, originally as a tomb for himself, but later assigned to his mother, Helena, who died in 328.

History.

The area where the mausoleum is located is part of a late-Roman complex of building known as Ad Duas Lauros, which, according to ancient sources, extended from the Porta Maggioreuntil the third mile of the ancient Via Labicana. They include the Catacombs of Marcellinus and Peter and the Palaeo-Christian basilica with the same name; of the latter, little remains today, as it was used as the base for the modern church of Santi Marcellino e Pietro ad Duas Lauros.

Access to the mausoleum and the catacombs is to the left of the church.

Before the construction of the mausoleum, the area was used as a cemetery of the Equites singulares. This has been attested by numerous inscriptions mentioning the Equites at ad Duas Lauros, although the exact location of the necropolis has not been discovered. It has been supposed that the necropolis was deliberately destroyed by Constantine as a revenge against the Equites who, in the battle of Ponte Milvio, sided with Maxentius against him.

After the death of Helena, Ad Duas Lauros was assigned to the Roman popes. The mausoleum was damaged by the use of its materials for other constructions. In the 8th century it became a defensive fortress. However, it continued to house Helena's tomb until the 11th century, when the sarcophagus was brought to the Lateran (currently it is in the Vatican Museum).

Lanzoni and Duchesne place in this area the town known as Subaugusta, whose name referred to the Augusta Helena, and which for a while formed a small diocese, four of whose bishops took part in synods held at Rome between 465 and 502. The see is included in the Catholic Church's list of titular sees.

Architecture.

The building is on the circular plan, and is constituted by two cylinders, the upper one being of smaller diameter (27.74 metres (91.0 ft), internal diameter 20.metres (66.2 ft)). The original height was 25.42 metres (83.4 ft), while today it has reduced to some metres (59 ft).

Internally, the lower cylinder has an octagonal shape. At the vertexes are niches, alternatively rectangular and semicircular; one of them housed the entrance. In correspondence with the niche, in the upper ring, were eight arcaded windows. In order to obtain a lighter dome, it included fragments of amphorae (such as in the Temple of Romulus or the Mausoleum of Villa Gordiani), which are now visible after the vault has collapsed. This led to the medieval name of the mausoleum, Torpignattara (Torre delle pignatte, meaning "Tower of the Vases"), today also used for the quarter which has grown around.

The rectangular niche facing the entrance most likely contained the sarcophagus of Helena, in red porphyry. The external walls of the sarcophagus are decorated with war scenes, as it was probably originally to be used for Helena's son, the emperor Constantine.
 
23 - 15 Mausoleum of Mausoleum of Maxentius.

From Wikipedia.

The Mausoleum of Maxentius was part of a large complex on the Appian Way in Rome that included a palace and a chariot racing circus, constructed by the Emperor Maxentius. The large circular tomb was built by Maxentius in the early 4th century, probably with himself in mind and as a family tomb, but when his young son Valerius Romulus died he was buried there. After extensive renovation the mausoleum was reopened to the public in 2014.

Maxentius may have decided to build the mausoleum on the Appian Way because, according to Roman custom, all bodies had to be buried outside the city. The complex is very close to several catacombs. The mausoleum is believed to have been a two-story, cylindrical rotunda with a diameter of around 35 metres, but only its semi-underground floor survives. There is a central octagonal pillar with a diameter of more than nine meters and this is circled by a seven-meter-wide, vaulted corridor with open niches for the sarcophagi.  There is no trace of floor or wall decoration, suggesting that the building was never completed.

An 18th century home largely obscures the mausoleum from the Appian Way and stands where a columnar porch once framed the tomb’s principal entrance. This was originally a farmhouse and was later converted into a home by the Torlonia family, who owned it until it was taken over by the Fascist government in 1943.
 
23 - 16 Dogali Obolisk.

From Wikipedia.

From the baths of Diocletian. Originally one of a pair from Heliopolis, the other now in the Boboli Gardens in Florence. Moved to the Temple of Isis in Rome. Found in 1883 by Rodolfo Lanciani near Santa Maria sopra Minerva. Now commemorates the Battle of Dogali, originally in front of Near Termini Station and moved to its present site in 1924.
 
23 - 17 Flaminio Obolisk, 24 BC.

From Wikipedia.

Originally from Heliopolis.map Brought to Rome by Augustus in BC with the Solare obelisk and erected on the spina of the Circus Maximus.map Found with the Lateranense obelisk in 1587 in two pieces and erected by Pope Sixtus V in 1589. Sculptures with lion fountains were added to the base in 1818. Weighs around 235 tons.
 
23 - 18 Lateranense Obolisk, 32.Meters 357.

From Wikipedia.

The Lateran Obelisk is the largest standing ancient Egyptian obelisk in the world, and it is also the tallest obelisk in Italy. It originally weighed 455 tons, but after collapsing and being re-erected 4 meters shorter, now weighs around 330 tons. It is located in the square across from the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran and the San Giovanni Addolorata Hospital.

History.

Originally from the temple of Amun in Karnak,map the obelisk was first brought to Alexandria over the Nile by obelisk ship in the early 4th century along with the Obelisk of Theodosius by Constantius II. He intended to bring them both to Constantinople, his new capital for the Roman empire. The obelisk never made it there.

Circus Maximus.

After remaining a few decades in Alexandria, Constantius II had the Lateran obelisk shipped to Rome when he made his only visit there in 357. It was erected near the Egyptian obelisk called the Flaminio, which had stood since BC where it was installed by Augustus to decorate the spina of the Circus Maximus.map There they both remained, until after the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century the Circus Maximus was abandoned and they eventually broke or were taken down. They were eventually buried by mud and detritus carried by a small stream there over time.

First person accounts have the original (Roman) base of the monument still in the Circus Maximus as late as 1589. It contained a narrative of Constantius' transport, raising, and dedication of "his father's" obelisk inscribed on its four sides as a long epigram.

The base of obelisk was erected in 1588 and incorrectly claims that it marks the location of Emperor Constantine I's baptism, although he was actually baptized just before he died in Nicomedia in 337. The base of the obelisk makes no mention of his son who brought the obelisk to Rome.

Though pieces of the obelisk had been found in the 14th and 15th centuries, serious excavation was only made possible under Pope Sixtus V. The three pieces of the Lateran obelisk were dug up in 1587, and after being restored by architect Domenico Fontana, the obelisk was re-erected approximately 4 meters shorter. When it was erected near the Lateran Palace and basilica of St. John Lateran on 9 August 1588, it became the last ancient Egyptian obelisk to be erected in Rome. Its location was formerly the spot where the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius stood until 1538, when it was relocated to decorate the Piazza del Campidoglio on Capitoline Hill.

The obelisk was topped with a cross and the pedestal was decorated with inscriptions explaining its Egyptian history and its travels to Alexandria and Rome, mentioning the baptism of Constantine the Great.
 
23 - 19 Macuteo Obolisk, 6.34 BC.

From Wikipedia.

Originally one of a pair at the Temple of Ra in Heliopolis, the other being the now much shorter Matteiano. Moved to the Temple of Isis near Santa Maria sopra Minerva. Found in 1373 near San Macuto and erected in Piazza Macuta. Moved to the front of the Pantheon by Pope Clement XI in 17over a fountain by Filippo Barigioni.
 
23 - 20 Matteiano Obolisk, 2.68 Meters BC.

From Wikipedia.

Originally one of a pair at the Temple of Ra in Heliopolis, the other being the Macuteo which retains much more of its original height. Moved to the Temple of Isis near Santa Maria sopra Minerva. Found in the 14th century and erected east of Santa Maria in Aracoeli on the Capitoline. Moved to Villa Celimontana after Michelangelo redesigned the square in the late 16th century. Lost again; fragments rediscovered and re-erected in 1820. Smallest obelisk in Rome.
 
23 - 21 Minerveo Obolisk, 5.47 Meters 285.

From Wikipedia.

Originally one of a pair from Sais. Brought to Rome by Diocletian for the nearby Temple of Isis. Found in 1655 and erected in 1667 by Pope Alexander VII on an Elephant base by Bernini, behind the Pantheon in Piazza della Minerva. The other of the pair is in Urbino.
 
23 - 22 Solare Obolisk, 21.79 Meters BC.

From Wikipedia.

Originally from Heliopolis.map Brought to Rome by Augustus in BC with the Flaminio obelisk to form the gnomon of the Solarium Augusti in the Campus Martius.map Found in the 16th century but reburied. Rediscovered and erected by Pope Pius VI in front of the Palazzo Montecitorio in 1792.
 
23 - 23 Vaticano Obolisk, 25.5 Meters 40.

From Wikipedia.

Originally raised in the Forum Iulium in Alexandriamap by the prefect Cornelius Galluson Augustus's orders around 30–28 BC. No hieroglyphs. Brought to Rome by Caligulain 40 for the spina of the Vatican Circus.map Relocated by Pope Sixtus V in 1586 using a method devised by Domenico Fontana; the first monumental obelisk raised in the modern period, it is the only obelisk in Rome that has not toppled since Roman times. During the Middle Ages, the gilt ball on top of the obelisk was believed to contain the ashes of Julius Caesar. Fontana later removed the ancient metal ball, now in a Rome museum, that stood atop the obelisk and found only dust. Pedro Tafurin his Andanças (circa 1440) mentions that many passed between the ground and the "tower" base "thinking it a saintly thing".
 
23 - 24 Agonalis Obolisk, 16.53 Meters 90.

From Wikipedia.

A copy commissioned by Domitian and erected at the Temple of Serapis. Moved to the Circus of Maxentius by Maxentius. The Earl of Arundel paid a deposit and attempted to ship the four pieces to London in the late 1630s but Urban VIII disallowed its export.

Erected on top of the Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi by Bernini in 1651.
 
23 - 25 Quirinale Obolisk, 14.63 Meters 28 BC.

From Wikipedia.

Originally erected on the eastern flank of the Mausoleum of Augustus, paired with the Esquiline obelisk. Found in 1527. Erected by Pope Pius VI in 1786 on the Quirinal Hill next to statues of the Dioscuri (called the 'Horse Tamers') from the Baths of Constantine.
 
23 - 26 Esquiline Obolisk, 28 Meters BC.

From Wikipedia.

Originally erected on the western flank of the Mausoleum of Augustus, paired with the Quirinale obelisk. Found in 1527 and erected in 1587 by Pope Sixtus V behind Santa Maria Maggiore.
 
23 - 27 Sallustiano Obolisk, 273.

From Wikipedia.

Above the Spanish Steps. An Aurelian copy, although smaller, of the Flaminio obelisk of Ramses II in the Piazza del Popolo, for the Gardens of Sallust. Found by the Ludovisi and moved to the Piazza di San Giovanni in Laterano in 1734, but kept horizontal. Erected in 1789 by Pope Pius VI.
 
23 - 28 Pinciano Obolisk, 125.

From Wikipedia.

Commissioned by Hadrian and erected in Tivoli for the tomb of Antinous. Moved to Rome by Elagabalus to decorate the spina of the Circus Varianus. Found in the 16th century near the Porta Maggiore. Moved to the Palazzo Barberini, then moved to the Vatican by Pope Clement XIV; finally erected on the Pincian by Pope Pius VII in 1822.
 
23 - 29 Alloggiamenti de Pellegrini.  
From the Plana Severiana.
 
23 - 30 Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine.

From Wikipedia.

The Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine (Italian: Basilica di Massenzio), sometimes known as the Basilica Nova - meaning "new basilica" - or Basilica of Maxentius, is an ancient building in the Roman Forum, Rome, Italy. It was the largest building in the Forum.

History.

Construction began on the northern side of the forum under the emperor Maxentius in 308, and was completed in 3by Constantine I after his defeat of Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. The building rose close to the Temple of Peace, at that time probably neglected, and the Temple of Venus and Rome, whose reconstruction was part of Maxentius' interventions.

The building consisted of a central nave covered by three groin vaults suspended 39 meters above the floor on four large piers, ending in an apseat the western end containing a colossal statue of Constantine (remnants of which are now in a courtyard of the Palazzo dei Conservatori of the Musei Capitolini). The lateral forces of the groin vaults were held by flanking aisles measuring 23 by metres (75 x 56 feet). The aisles were spanned by three semi-circular barrel vaults perpendicular to the nave, and narrow arcades ran parallel to the nave beneath the barrel vaults. The nave itself measured 25 metres by 80 metres (83 x 265 feet) creating a 2000 square meter floor. Like the great imperial baths, the basilica made use of vast interior space with its emotional effect.

Running the length of the eastern face of the building was a projecting arcade. On the south face was a projecting (prostyle) porch with four columns (tetrastyle).

The south and central sections were probably destroyed by the earthquake of 847. In 1349 the vault of the nave collapsed in another earthquake. The only one of the eight 20-meter-high columns, which survived the earthquake was brought by Pope Paul V to Piazza Santa Maria Maggiore in 1614. All that remains of the basilica today is the north aisle with its three concrete barrel vaults. The ceilings of the barrel vaults show advanced weight-saving structural skill with octagonal ceiling coffers. The wrestling events were held here during the 1960 Summer Olympic Games.

In ancient Rome a basilica was a rectangular building with a large central open space, and often a raised apse at the far end from the entrance. Basilicas served a variety of functions, including a combination of a court-house, council chamber and meeting hall. There might be, however, numerous statues of the gods displayed in niches set into the walls. Under Constantine and his successors this type of building was chosen as the basis for the design of the larger places of Christian worship, presumably as the basilica form had fewer pagan associations than those of the designs of traditional Greco-Roman temples, and allowed large congregations. As a result of the building programmes of the Christian Roman emperors the term basilica later became largely synonymous with a large church or cathedral.

The color of the building before it was destroyed was white. On the outside wall of the basilica, facing onto the via dei Fori Imperiali, are contemporary maps showing the various stages of the rise of the Roman Empire which were added during the Fascist regime of Benito Mussolini. A map depicting Mussolini's "New Roman Empire" was removed from the wall after the war.

Engineering.

The Basilica Maxentius is a marvel of Roman engineering work. At the time of construction, it was the largest structure to be built and thus is a unique building taking both aspects from Roman baths as well as typical Roman basilicas. At that time, it used the most advanced engineering techniques known including innovations taken from the Markets of Trajan and the Baths of Diocletian.

Similar to many basilicas at the time such as the Basilica Ulpia, the Basilica Maxentius featured a huge open space in the central nave, but unlike other basilicas instead of having columns support the ceiling the entire building was built using arches, a much more common appearance in Roman baths than basilicas. Another difference from traditional basilicas is the roof of the structure. While traditional basilicas were built with a flat roof, the Basilica Maxentius was built with a folded roof, decreasing the overall weight of the structure and decreasing the horizontal forces exerted on the outer arches.

See also.
 
23 - 31 Basilica of Junius Bassus.

From Wikipedia.

The Basilica of Junius Bassus (basilica Iunii Bassi) was a civil basilica on the Esquiline Hill in Rome, on a site now occupied by the Seminario Pontificio di Studi Orientali, in via Napoleone III, 3. It is best known for its examples of opus sectile work.

History.

It was built by Junius Annius Bassus in 331 during his consulate. In the second half of the 5th century, under pope Simplicius, it was transformed into the church of Sant'Andrea Catabarbara. Its last remains were rediscovered and demolished in 1930, and these excavations also found an Augustan house (with later rebuilding) containing 3rd century mosaics, one with Dionysian subjects and one with the names of the house's owners (Arippii and Ulpii Vibii). These mosaics are now on show in the seminary.
 
23 - 32 Basilica of Neptune.

From Wikipedia.

The Basilica of Neptune (Latin: basilica Neptuni) was a basilica built in Rome by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa in honour of Neptune and in celebration of his naval victories at Mylae, Naulochus and Actium. Near the site of the Pantheon, its remains were restored under Hadrian for an unknown use. The Temple of Hadrian was once misidentified with the basilica.

It was part of building works on the Campus Martius between 33 and 25 BC, possibly financed by the proceeds of Octavian's campaign in Illyria between 35 and 33 BC. The project also included the Pantheon, the Saepta Iulia and the Baths of Agrippa.
 
23 - 33 BASILICA OPIMIA.
Erected probably by the consul L. Opimius in 121 B.C., at the same time that he restored the temple of Concord. The basilica must have stood just north of the temple, between it and the Tullianum, and it was probably removed when Tiberius rebuilt the temple, as it is not mentioned after that date. The celeberrimum  monumentum  Opimi of Cicero refers probably to both temple and basilica; celeberrimum (' much frequented,' not 'magnificent') is contrasted with his lonely tomb on the shore at Dyrrachium.
 
23 - 34 Basilica Porcia.

From Wikipedia.

The basilica Porcia was the first civil basilica built in ancient Rome. It was built by order of Marcus Porcius Cato in 184 BC as censor and is named after him. He built it as a space for administering laws and for merchants to meet, against some opposition. It stood to the west of the Curia, on land bought by Cato and previously occupied by shops and private houses. Many trials were held inside the basilica.

It was destroyed during the funeral of Publius Clodius Pulcher in 52 BC when the fire from his funeral pyre spread to the front of the Curia and spread to the basilica and other neighbouring buildings. The ruins were probably flattened later that year to build a new building on the site.
 
23 - 35 Porta Maggiore.

From Wikipedia.

The Porta Maggiore ("Larger Gate"), or Porta Prenestina, is one of the eastern gates in the ancient but well-preserved 3rd-century Aurelian Walls of Rome.

Through the gate ran two ancient roads: the Via Praenestina and the Via Labicana. The Via Prenestina was the eastern road to the ancient town of Praeneste (modern Palestrina). The Via Labicana (now called the Via Casilina) heads southeast from the city.

The gate.

The Porta Maggiore is by far the best urban site to visit for an understanding and view of the ancient aqueducts. It is a monumental double archway built of white travertine. It was first known as the Porta Prenestina, perhaps a reference to the road over which is passes (the Via Praenestina). The "gate," built in 52 AD by the emperor Claudius, was originally intended to provide a decorative section of support for two aqueducts, the Aqua Claudia and the Anio Novus. At that time these aqueducts crossed the ancient Via Labicana and Praenestina roads thereby providing the opportunity to create at this location a sort of triumphal arch to the conquest of nature and its conqueror, the emperor Claudius. The two channels of these aqueducts, (the Aqua Claudia and Aqua Anio Novus), one lying on top of the other, can be seen when viewing the cross-section running through the travertine attic at the top of the gate.

The gate was incorporated in the Aurelian Wall in 271 by the emperor Aurelian thus truly turning it into an entrance (gate) to the city. Experts refer to this as an early example of “architectural recycling,” essentially adapting one existing structure, to another use. In this case using an aqueduct as a wall.

It was modified further when the emperor Honorius augmented the walls in 405. The foundations of a guardhouse added by Honorius are still visible, while the upper part of the gate, as built by Honorius, has been moved to the left side of the Porta.

It is currently known as the Porta Maggiore, possibly designated as such because of the road that runs through the gate leads to the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore. The church is an important place of prayer dedicated to the Virgin Mary.

The following inscriptions in praise of the emperors Claudius, Vespasian, and Titus for their work on the aqueducts are prominently displayed on the attic of the Porta Maggiore:

TI. CLAUDIUS DRUSI F. CAISAR AUGUSTUS GERMANICUS PONTIF. MAXIM., / TRIBUNICIA POTESTATE XII, COS. V, IMPERATOR XXVII, PATER PATRIAE, / AQUAS CLAUDIAM EX FONTIBUS, QUI VOCABANTUR CAERULEUS ET CURTIUS A MILLIARIO XXXXV, / ITEM ANIENEM NOVAM A MILLIARIO LXII SUA IMPENSA IN URBEM PERDUCENDAS CURAVIT.

(In AD 52 the Emperor Claudius etc. had the waters of the Claudia brought to Rome from the springs called Caeruleus and Curtius at the 45th milestone, and likewise the Anio Novus from the 62nd milestone, both at his own expense.)

IMP. CAESAR VESPASIANUS AUGUST. PONTIF. MAX. TRIB. POT. II IMP. VI COS. III DESIG. IIII P. P. / AQUAS CURTIAM ET CAERULEAM PERDUCTAS A DIVO CLAUDIO ET POSTEA INTERMISSAS DILAPSASQUE / PER ANNOS NOVEM SUA IMPENSA URBI RESTITUIT.

(In AD 71 the Emperor Vespasian etc. restored to the city at his own expense the Curtian and Caerulean waters, which had been led to the city by the deified Claudius but had fallen into intermittent use and disrepair for nine years.)

IMP. T. CAESAR DIVI F. VESPASIANUS AUGUSTUS PONTIFEX MAXIMUS TRIBUNIC. / POTESTATE X IMPERATOR XVII PATER PATRIAE CENSOR COS. VIII / AQUAS CURTIAM ET CAERULEAM PERDUCTAS A DIVO CLAUDIO ET POSTEA / A DIVO VESPASIANO PATRE SUO URBI RESTITUTAS CUM A CAPITE AQUARUM A SOLO VETUSTATE DILAPSAE ESSENT NOVA FORMA REDUCENDAS SUA IMPENSA CURAVIT.

(In AD 81 the Emperor Titus etc. at his own expense, had the Curtian and Caerulean waters, introduced by the deified Claudius and afterwards repaired for the city by Titus’s deified father Vespasian, restored with new structures, beginning from its source, after the aqueduct was ruined to its foundations from age.)

Nearby archaeological remains.

Close by the gate, just outside the wall, is the unusual Tomb of the Baker, built by Marcus Virgilius Eurysaces.

In 1915, a subterranean Neopythagorean basilica was discovered nearby on the Via Praenestina, dating from the 1st century. The groundplan shows three naves and an apse, a design similar to that which began to be adopted in Christian basilicas during the 4th century. The vaults are decorated with white stuccoes symbolizing Neopythagorean beliefs, although the precise meaning of elements of the decoration remains a subject of debate.
 
23 - 36 BASILICA SEMPRONIA.
Erected in 170 B.C. by the censor Ti. Sempronius Gracchus, behind the TABERNAE VETERES (q.v.) and near the statue of Vortumnus, on a site that had been occupied by the house of Scipio Africanus and adjacent shops (Liv. xliv. 16). It stood therefore at the point where the vicus Tuscus entered the forum. Nothing is known of the history of the building, but it must have been destroyed when the Julia was built.
 
23 - 37 Basilica Ulpia.

From Wikipedia.

The Basilica Ulpia was an ancient Roman civic building located in the Forum of Trajan. The Basilica Ulpia separates the temple from the main courtyard in the Forum of Trajan with the Trajan's Column to the northwest. It was named after Roman emperor Trajan whose full name was Marcus Ulpius Traianus.

It became perhaps the most important basilica after two ancient ones, the Basilicas Aemilia and Julia. With its construction, much of the political life moved from the Roman Forum to the Forum of Trajan. It remained so until the construction of the Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine.

Unlike later Christian basilicas, it had no known religious function; it was dedicated to the administration of justice, commerce and the presence of the emperor. It was the largest in Rome measuring 1by 55 meters (385 x 182 ft).

The Basilica Ulpia was composed of a great central nave with four side aisles with clerestory windows to let light into the space divided by rows of columns and two semicircular apse, one at each of the ends with the entry to the basilica located on the longitudinal side. The columns and the walls were of precious marbles; the 50 meter (164 ft) high roof was covered by gilded bronze tiles.

The many rows of columns separating the side aisles are a traditional means of structure for basilicas. This method of structure can be traced back to Egyptian hypostyle Halls. The Basilica Ulpia is very similar to one of the most famous hypostyle halls, Great Hypostyle Hall at Karnak.

Many of the columns still exist on site, although a large number have fallen. Part of the foundation of the basilica continues today under the modern Via dei Fori Imperiali, a trunk road constructed during the rule of Benito Mussolini. The whole of the construction was decorated with war spoils and trophies from the Dacian Wars conducted under the command of Trajan.

Later, it was used as the architectural prototype by Constantine as the basis for the layout of the new Christian churches. The Basilica Ulpia was used as to model for Constantine completion of the Basilica of Maxentius.
 
23 - 38 Trajan's Market.  

From Wikipedia.

Trajan's Market (Latin: Mercatus Traiani, Italian: Mercati di Traiano) is a large complex of ruins in the city of Rome, Italy, located on the Via dei Fori Imperiali, at the opposite end to the Colosseum. The surviving buildings and structures, built as an integral part of Trajan's Forum and nestled against the excavated flank of the Quirinal Hill, present a living model of life in the Roman capital and a glimpse at the restoration in the city, which reveals new treasures and insights about Ancient Roman architecture.

Thought to be the world's oldest shopping mall, the arcades in Trajan's Market are now believed by many to be administrative offices for Emperor Trajan. The shops and apartments were built in a multi-level structure and it is still possible to visit several of the levels. Highlights include delicate marble floors and the remains of a library.

Construction.

Trajan's Market was probably built in 100-110 AD by Apollodorus of Damascus, an architect who always followed Trajan in his adventures and to whom Trajan entrusted the planning of his Forum, and inaugurated in 1AD. During the Middle Ages the complex was transformed by adding floor levels, still visible today, and defensive elements such as the Torre delle Milizie, the "militia tower" built in 1200. A convent, which was later built in this area, was demolished at the beginning of the twentieth century to restore Trajan's Markets to the city of Rome.

Museo dei Fori Imperiali.

The new Museum of the Imperial Fora (Italian: Museo dei Fori Imperiali) houses a wealth of artifacts from all of ancient Rome's forums. The modern entrances to Trajan's Market are at Via Quattro Novembre, 94, and Piazza Madonna di Loreto. Immediately, the visitor enters into a shopping area, disposed on two different sides, where free wheat was once distributed to the people of Rome.

At the end of this hall, a large balcony offers a beautiful view of the markets, Trajan's Forum, and the Vittoriano. This is actually a part of the Via Biberatica (from the Latin bibo, bibere meaning "to drink"; the street was the location for several of the Roman taverns and grocers' shops in the area). The road cuts through Trajan's Market.

On the lower part there are also two large halls, probably used for auditions or concerts. A shop housed in the Market is known as a taberna. The giant exedra formed by the market structure was originally mirrored by a matching exedral boundary space on the south flank of Trajan's Forum.

The grand hall of the market is roofed by a concrete vault raised on piers, both covering and allowing air and light into the central space. The market itself is constructed primarily out of brick and concrete.
 
23 - 39 AEDES DIVI IULII.

The temple of the deified Julius Caesar, authorised by the triumvirs in 42 B.C., but apparently built by Augustus alone , and dedicated 18th August, 29 B.C.. The body of Caesar was burnt at the east end of the forum, in front of the Regia, and here an altar was at once erected, and a column of Numidian marble twenty feet high inscribed Parenti Patriae. Column and altar were soon removed by Dolabella, and it was on this site that the temple was afterwards built. From the evidence of coins, the temple was restored by Hadrian, but the existing architectural fragments belong entirely to the original structure. It had the right of asylum, and the Arval Brethren met there in 69 A.D..

A considerable part of the foundations, already uncovered, and the evidence of the coins of Hadrian, enabled Richter in 1889 to reconstruct the temple in its main lines, and additional information was given by the excavations of 1898-1899. The temple consisted of two parts, a rectangular platform 3.5 metres high, 26 wide, and about 30 long; and on this the stylobate proper which rose 2.36 metres above the platform, making the cella floor very high, and was about metres in width. In the middle of the front of the platform is a semi-circular niche 8.3 metres in diameter, of which some of the peperino wall has been left in place, and in this niche is a portion of the concrete core of a round altar standing on the travertine slabs which formed the pavement of the forum when the temple was built. The first altar therefore, which Dolabella destroyed, must have been restored, and preserved in the niche of this platform when the temple itself was built. This platform projected beyond the stylobate on both sides for a distance of 7 metres, and the projection was called rostra aedis divi Iuli because the wall on both sides of the niche was decorated with the beaks of the ships captured at Actium in a style similar to that of the old rostra. From this rostra the emperors seem to have spoken frequently. There is some evidence in support of the view, probable in itself, that Caesar had himself erected a second rostra at the east end of the forum, which was represented by the rostra aedis divi Iuli after the building of the temple.

The temple was Ionic, hexastyle, probably with antae, and pycnostyle, that is, with intercolumnar spaces equal to one and a half diameters. The columns were 1.metres in diameter at the base, and their height was nine times the diameter. The cella occupied the whole width of the temple, about metres. The space between the two middle columns of the pronaos was wider than that between the others, and within the cella, opposite its entrance and this wide intercolumniation, stood a colossal statue of Caesar with a comet or star on its head, perhaps that referred to by Pliny. In this temple Augustus placed treasures from the spoil that he had taken, and paintings of the Dioscuri, Victoria, and of Venus Anadyomene by Apelles. As this had been injured by dampness, Nero replaced it by one by Dorotheus. Remains of the concrete podium and of the architectural decoration still exist; but the concrete core has been almost entirely stripped of the stone walls by which it was originally enclosed.
 
23 - 40 Temple of Asclepius.

From Wikipedia.

The Temple of Asclepius was an ancient Roman temple to Asclepius, the Greek god of medicine, on the Isola Tiberina in Rome.

History.

It was first built between 293 and 290 BC and was dedicated in 289 BC. According to legend, a plague hit Rome in 293 BC, leading the senate to build a temple to Asclepius, Latinised to 'Esculapius'. After having consulted the Sibylline Books and gained a favourable response, a delegation of Roman elders was sent to Epidaurus in Greece, famous for its sanctuary to Asclepius, to obtain a statue of him to bring back to Rome. The legend also relates that during the propitiatory rites a large serpent (one of the god's attributes) slithered from the sanctuary and hid in the Roman ship. Certain that this was a sign of the god's favour, the Roman delegation quickly returned home, where the plague was still raging. As they were on the river Tiber and about to reach Rome, the snake crawled out of the ship and disappeared from sight on the island, marking the site where the temple was to be built. Work on the temple began immediately and it was dedicated in 289 BC - soon afterwards, the plague ended.

In memory of the event, the front of the island was also remodelled to imitate a trireme. An obelisk marked the island's centre, in front of the temple, to resemble a mast, while blocks of travertine were placed along the edges to look like a bow and stern. Several other structures arose on the island to shelter the sick, as evidenced by several surviving votives and inscriptions.

Remains.

The temple was destroyed in the medieval period and as early as 1000 the basilica of San Bartolomeo all'Isola was built on its remains by Otto III. The medieval well near the altar of the church seems to be the same as that used to draw water for the sick in the classical period as mentioned by Sextus Pompeius Festus, a 2nd-century Latin grammarian. There is also the Fatebenefratelli Hospital in front of the basilica.

Little remains of the temple - some fragments of the obelisk are now held in Naples and Munich and some travertine blocks were re-used in modern buildings on the island, including a relief of the staff of Asclepius.
 
23 - 41 BIBLIOTHECA ASINII POLLIONIS.
The first public library in Rome, established by Asinius Pollio in the ATRIUM LIBERTATIS  after his restoration of this building from the spoils of his Parthian campaign. It contained Greek and Latin books, with portrait busts of authors, and seems to have served also as a museum for works of art in general, who refers to it as Asini Pollionis monumenta.
 
23 - 42 Bibliotheca Ulpia.

From Wikipedia.

The Bibliotheca Ulpia ("Ulpian Library") was a Roman library founded by the Emperor Trajan in AD 1in his forum, the Forum of Trajan, located in ancient Rome. was considered one of the most prominent and most famous libraries of antiquity, (the Library of Alexandria of the ancient city of Rome).Indeed, it was considered the major library in the Western World upon the destruction of the Library of Alexandria in the 3rd century. “Venantius Fortunatus also writes of ‘Vergil recited in Trajan's forum in the city’ about 576 AD.”  It was the only Roman library to survive until the Fall of Rome in the mid-fifth century

History.

In 1AD, the Emperor Trajan commissioned a library to be built in his Forum due north of the Roman Forum, the heart of the Roman Empire. Construction was completed in 1AD. Upon its completion, the Ulpian Library was the premier library and scholarly center of Rome. “This library was also the Public Record Office of Rome” with over 20,000 scrolls containing records concerning the city’s population. The library was also equipped with presses for storage of both scrolls and books storage. During excavation, traces of these pressed were found. The collection of books and scrolls not pertaining public records is thought to have been based on the private library of Epaphrodites of Cheronea and is thought to have contained over 30,000 books and scrolls.

Early in the 4th century, the contents of the Ulpian Library were moved to the Baths of Diocletian, possibly due to repairs as the contents were returned at a later date as records show that in 455 AD a bust of Didonius Appollinarius was ordered there by the Emperor Avitus.

Library Layout.

The Ulpian Library continued in the tradition of Roman imperial libraries with Latin and Greek collections housed separately. In this library, they faced one another across a small colonnaded courtyard that enclosed the Column of Trajan. The library was a two level structure with high vaulted ceilings to take advantage of the natural lighting. The interior walls were divided into bays by columns "set opposite pilasters that framed the niches which held the books and scrolls. There were three steps between the columns that enabled "access to a walkway in front of the bookcases." At the other end of the hall were recesses for a statue on each level, presumably of Trajan and possibly of Minerva. The niches (seven total on each wall) containing recessed wooden bookcases located in both walls running the length of the library along with four others running across the back wall stored the scrolls. Estimates on the amount of scrolls held are "approximately ten thousand" for both Latin and Greek libraries. "In addition, there were archival materials, such as praetorian edicts and senatorial decrees, as well as Caesar's autobiography and Trajan's commentaries on the Dacian Wars, of which now only a few words survive." The space itself was designed to be aesthetically pleasing with desks (plutei) and the books out of sight on shelves and intending for reading, but was not designed with the growth of the collection in mind.

Reconstruction.

There are reconstructions both digital and physical that show the external and internal view of the library. The digital reconstruction shows the view from inside the west (Greek) library, through what would have been bronze screens into the portico, where the base of the Column of Trajan can be seen. The library itself faces east, as Vitruvius recommends for libraries, the screens restricting access when the library was not in use and, with the high vaulted ceiling, taking advantage of the morning light. Portions of the floor and the podium of one of the walls survive allowed for the digital reconstruction of the library interior.
 
23 - 43 BIBLIOTHECA TEMPLI D. AUGUSTI.
Also called bibliotheca Templi novi, the library established by Tiberius in the temple of Augustus, and dedicated after his death . This library was burned with the temple under Vespasian or Domitian and restored by the latter. From a reference in Martial, it has been conjectured that the books themselves were removed after this fire and not actually replaced until just before the publication of this epigram in 101 A.D. (Friedlander, ad loc.). It is possible that this is the same library that was called bibliotheca domus Tiberianae in the fourth century (cf. Boyd 10-15, 3. For the discussion of the identification of this library, see AUGUSTUS, TEMPLUM.
 

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